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h  LIBRARY 

•  OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

GIFT  OF 

MRS.   MARY  WOLFSOHN 

IN    MEMORY  OF 

HENRY  WOLFSOHN 


'jB^sjEs:ss^s2 


lo^ 


THE  DELUGE. — LAST   POINT   OF    LAND   ABOVE    THE    WATERa 
DRAWN    BY    GUSTAVH    DOR^. 


*' Infinite  Riches  and  Mnch  Learning  in  a  Little  Space/^ 

CARLETON'S 

TREASURY. 


A  VALUABLE   HAND-BOOK 

OF 

GENERAL    INFORMATION. 

AND 

A   CONDENSED  ENCYCLOPEDIA 

OF 

UNIVERSAL   KNOWLEDGE, 

BEING 

A    REFERENCE    BOOK    UPON    NEARLY    EVERY    SUBJECT 

THAT    CAN   BE   THOUGHT   OF. 

Containing,  in   a   Condensed   Form,  what   can   otherwise 

be  learned  only  from  a  great  many  large 

Encyclopedias,  Dictionaries,  etc. 

Including^  among  other  Important  Subjects,  whole  chapters  upon 


Astronomy, 

Geology. 

Mineralogy, 

Chemistry, 

Electricity, 

Vegetable  Creation, 


Fine  Arts, 
Jurisprudence, 
Ancient  History, 
Animal  Creation, 
Chronology, 
Literature, 


Medieval  Learning, 
Geography, 
English  Literature, 
Medieval  History, 
British  History, 
Modern  History. 


WITH  A    COMPLETE  ANALYTICAL   INDEX 

FOR    READY   REFERENCE. 


EDITED  BY 

THE  ABLEST  TALENT  THE  WORLD  AFFORDS, 

And  Profusely  Illustrated. 
EIGHTEENTH      EDITION. 

REVISED    AND   ENLARGED. 


<4S>. 


NEW  YORK ; 

G.  JV,  Carleto7i  &   Co. 

SAN  FRANCISCO  : 


\SOLD    ONLY   BY   SUBSCRIPTION.] 


COPYKIGHT,  1881, 

BY 

G.  W.  CARLETON  &  CO. 


12  S3 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles.— See   page  47. 


**  Culture  is  not  a  Substitute  for  Life^  but  the  Key  to  ity 

— Mr.  Leslie  in  The  New  Republic 


PREFACE. 


HE  design  of  this  work  is  to  furnish,  in  One 
Volume,  a  Handbook  of  General  Information, 
in  which  a  compressed  yet  sufficiently  com- 
prehensive account  is  given  of  all  those  subjects  a 
knowledge  of  which  could  otherwise  only  be  acquired 
by  years  of  study,  or  after  a  large  and  varied  course  of 
reading. 

The  best  writers  have  been  consulted  as  authorities 
in  all  the  different  branches  of  Science,  Art,  History, 
Literature,  &c.,  and  a  resume  of  each  subject  is  given 
under  an  appropriate  heading. 

The  narrative  form  has  been  preserved,  and  a  con- 
secutive and  progressive  result  is  attained  by  beginning 
with  the  ''  Origin  and  Cause"  of  all  things,  and  follow- 
ing a  natural  sequence  through  the  successive  studies  of 
Astronomy,  Geography,  Mineralogy,  Chemistry,  Nat- 
ural History,  Ethnology  and  Chronology;  then  through 
Language  and  Literature,  early  Greek  and  Roman 
Philosophy,  Mythology,  and  Ancient  History,  and  so  on 
through  Medieval  and  Modern  History,  down  to  our 
own  times.     Modern  History  is  made  to  assume  a  more 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728.-  ^See  page  13. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


Viii  PREFACE. 

interesting  form,  by  treating  that  of  all  the  European 
nations  in  a  contemporaneous  narrative.  The  depart- 
ments of  History  and  Literature,  especially,  are  full  of 
interest,  and  much  useful  knowledge  is  given  nnder  the 
headings  of  Jurisprudence  and  Concluding  Miscellaneous 
Questions. 

The  question-and-answer  form  serves  to  define  the 
heading  and  meaning  of  each  paragraph,  making  the 
subject  in  hand  more  thoroughly  outlined  and  more 
permanently  arranged  in  the  mind,  by  a  pertinent  allu- 
sion to  its  merit  or  its  importance.  This  arrangement, 
together  with  a  thorough  Alphabetical  Index,  enables 
the  reader  to  master  the  gist  of  any  of  the  subjects 
included  in  the  volume  in  a  short  time,  and  thus  meets 
the  need  which  is  more  and  more  felt  every  day,  of 
getting  the  greatest  amount  of  knowledge  in  the  short- 
est possible  way. 

The  convenient  shape  in  which  the  volume  is  pub- 
lished will  render  it  a  constant  and  useful  companion  ; 
and  the  Editors  believe  it  will  become  a  Household 
Friend,  containing,  as  it  does,  more  varied  information 
than  any  other  reference  book  of  its  size,  and  easier  to 
consult  than  any  encyclopaedia,  for  the  thread  of  each 
separate  subject  remains  unbroken  until  the  whole 
story  is  told. 


'"^Z   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Humboldt,  the   Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See  page    133. 


GENERAL   CONTENTS. 


PAOl 

ASTRONOMY .     ii 

GEOGRAPHY 23 

GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY.        .        .  .32 

CHEMISTRY— HEAT— THE   ATMOSPHERE- 
SOUND         39 

LIGHT— ELECTRICITY— MAGNETISM     .        .     50 

MATTER    AND     MOTION  —  MECHANICS — 
WATER 55 

THE  VEGETABLE  CREATION  ....    64 

THE  ANIMAL  CREATION 70 

ETHNOLOGY .8a 

CHRONOLOGY 85 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65, 


X  GENERAL    CONTENTS, 

LANGUAGE,   LITERATURE,  &c.        .        .        .    93 


PAOl 


GREEK   AND   ROMAN    PHILOSOPHY    AND 

LITERATURE 102 

MEDIEVAL  LEARNING  AND  ARTS                 .  115 

CONTINENTAL  EUROPEAN  LITERATURE  .  122 

ITALY 122 

SPAIN    AND  PORTUGAL     .            .            .            .            .            .  124 

FRANCE 125 

GERMANY,  &C.             .            .            ...           .            .  130 

THE    NETHERLANDS,    &C I34 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE       .        .        .        .        .  136 

EARLY   ENGLISH    WRITERS I37 

EARLY  SCOTTISH  WRITERS  .....  139 
ERA    OF   ELIZABETH,    JAMES   L,    AND    CHARLES   I. — 

1553    TO    1649        .......  141 

ERA  OF  THE  COMMONWEALTH  TO  THE  REVOLUTION 

1649  TO  1689 14^ 

ERA  OF  WILLIAM  IIL,  ANNE,  AND  GEORGE   L — 1689 

TO    1727 148 

ERA  OF  GEORGE  II. — 1727  TO  1760  .  .  .  .  151 
ERA  OF  THE  EARLY  PART  OF  THE  REIGN  OF  GEORGE 

IIL — 1760  TO  1800 154 

ERA  OF  THE  CONCLUSION  OF  THE  REIGN  OF  GEORGE 

III.,    AND    REIGNS    OF   GEORGE    IV.,    WILLIAM    IV., 

AND  VICTORIA — 1801  TO   1865       ...  162 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long. — See    page    302. 


^ 


GENERAL     CONTENTS.  XI 


PAGH 

LITERATURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF 
AMERICA 168 

THE  FINE  ARTS 


PAINTING 


169 

170 

SCULPTURE,   &C 178 

ARCHITECTURE 185 

MUSIC .  igc 

THE  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRU- 
DENCE          194 

MISCELLANEOUS   QUESTIONS        .        .        .207 
HISTORICAL 219 

ANCIENT  HISTORY 223 

THE     HEBREWS 223 

THE    BABYLONIANS,    ASSYRIANS,    EGYPTIANS     AND 

OTHERS 232 

GREECE,   ITS   LEGENDS   AND   MYTHOLOGY  .  .    241 

"         ,    ITS   CREDIBLE    HISTORY      ....    256 

ROME         ......,,,    262 

MEDIEVAL  HISTORY    .        .        .        .     '  .        .287 
BRITISH  HISTORY,  until  1603    ....  307 

"  "  ,  FROM  1603  UNTIL  1714    ,  .    334 

**  "  ,  FROM  1 7 14  TILL  THE  REIGN  OF 

QUEEN  VICTORIA        .  .    354 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


Xii  GENERAL     CONTENTS, 

PAOl 

MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY       .        .  373 

FRANCE  UNTIL  1560 373 

AUSTRIA  AND  SWITZERLAND 376 

THE  REFORMATION 380 

FRANCE  RESUMED     .  .  .  .  .  .  .    385 

THE  NETHERLANDS 394 

RUSSIA,  SWEDEN,  POLAND,  DENMARK         ,  »  .    396 

PRUSSIA,  AND  AUSTRIA  RESUMED  •  .  .    402 

FRANCE  CONCLUDED  .  .  .  •  .  .   4^4 

CONCLUDING  HISTORICAL  QUESTIONS     .  421 
ANALYTICAL  INDEX  .        .        .        c        .  xiii 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815. — See   page    368. 


C  ^  RL  E  T  O  IST'S 


Household  Encyclopedia 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX. 


Aaron, 

Abbasides,  the 

Aberdeen, 

Aborigines, 

Abraham, 

Abulfeda, 

Abyla, 

Abyssinian  Expedition, 

British, 
Academeia, 
Academy,  origin  of  the 

word. 
Acclimatising  of  plants, 
Achaean  League, 
Achaia, 
Acheron, 
Achilles, 
Acoustics,  to  whom  of 

special  importance, 
Acropolis,  the. 
Act  of  parliament, 

of  settlement, 

Action  and  reaction  of 

bodies  ;  examples  of, 
Actium,  battle  of, 
A.  D., 

Adams,  John, 
Addison,  Joseph,      136, 
Adelung, 

Adhesion  of  bodies. 
Advocate,  the  Lord, 


227 

293 
29 
224 
224 
117 
243 

373 
106 

106 

69 

261 

256 

25^ 
244 

260 
198 
352 

60 

273 
219 
428 
149 
134 
59 
206 


^diles, 
^neas, 
^olian  harp, 
-^olus, 
Aerolites ;    why 

nous, 
^schylus, 
^sculapius, 
^sop, 
^Esthetics, 
Africa,  23  ;  natives,  their 

race  and  conditio  n. 
Age,  the  Augustan, 

,  Bronze, 

,  Golden, 

,  Iron, 

Silver, 


Ages,  the  Dark, 

Stone,      Bronze, 


228 

244 
249 

249 
lumi- 

57 

103,  262 

104,  249 
103 
219 


31 

274 
242 
242 
242 
242 
287 


207 
287 
252 

304 


Iron 

,  Middle, 

Aglaia, 

Agra,    the     capital    of 

India, 
Agricola  subdues    Bri- 
tain, 278,  308 
Ahasuerus,  235 
Ahriman,                             235 
Ainsworth,  W.  H.  166 
Air,      deteriorated     by 
breathing  ;    injurious 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


V 

bo 

William     Shakspeare    was     Born    1564;      Died    1616.  —  See    page     143 

w* 

CO 
0) 

bo 

tiv                          ANALYTICAL    INDEX. A. 

V 
V 

effects    of    breathing 

Alexander    the    Great,  235 

1 

73 

bad,  42  ;  when  it  best 

236,  239 

09 

retains  the  sun's  heat, 

Alexandra  of  Denmark, 

1 

§ 

47  ;  how  compressed  ; 

Princess,                          372 

8 

the      science     which 

Alexandria,  239;  library 

0 
0^ 

CO 

treats  of   its   proper- 

of,                                     292 

8 

j« 

ties,   48  ;  how  altered 

Alexandrian  school,         240 

5 

g' 

by  heat,  48  ;  uses,  49, 

Alexandrines,                     loi 

« 

m 

65  ;  dry,  a  bad  electric 

Alecto,                                 250 

CO 

c9 

vi 

conductor,      53     (see 

Alfred  the  Great,              314 

A 

C 

Atmosphere). 

Alfieri,                                   124 

4) 

(0 

Air  pump. 

92 

Algae,                                     ()(i 

0* 

u 

Aix-la-Chapelle,   Char- 

Algebra, origin  of,            293 

3 

s 

lemagne    buried     at, 

Algiers,  bombarded  by 

I 

294  ;  treaty  of, 

359 

British  fleet;  taken  by 

J3 

Akenside,  Mark, 

153 

French,                            425 

2 

M 

Alani,  the. 

284 

Algiers,  Dey  of,                425 

^ 

"5? 

Alaric,  takes  Rome, 

284 

Alhambra,  the,                  305 

Uh 

o 

Albert,   French   Social- 

Alison, Sir  Archibald,     167 

0 

V 

ist, 

418 

All  is  lost  but  honor,        376 

(^ 

,  Prince     of    Eng- 

All    men     have     their 

R 
'% 

V 

land,  370  ;  death  of. 

372 

price,  author  of,            356 

3 

^ 

Albert-Edward,  Prince 

Alloys,                                   39 

S 

cS 

of  Wales, 

372 

Alnwick,  siege  of,            318 

"d 

ll 

Albertus  Magnus, 

115 

Alpheus,  river,                   243 

g 

< 

Albi, 

381 

Alps,                                     24 

CO 

3 

Albigenses, 

380 

Alto  relievo,  sculpture 

0 
j3 

•O 

Albion,  meaning  of. 

307 

in,                                     180 

H 

^ 

Albrecht  I.  of  Austria, 

Aluminous  soil,                   35 

SJ 

b/) 

3 

376, 

378 

Alva,  Duke  of,                   ^gc 

c 
0 

s 

Alchemists, 

39 

A.  M.,                                  75 

Alchemy,  origin  of, 

117 

Amadis  of  Gaul,               120 

CO 

(0 

"53 

Alcibiades,                 105, 

260 

Amazon,  the  river,              25 

•d 

> 

Alcuin, 

294 

Amazons,                             243 

1 

Alderman,  origin  of. 

315 

Amber,       its       electric 

^ 

Ale,    from    what    pre- 

power,                               53 

(U 

t, 

pared. 

67 

Ambrose,                             115 

A 

J 

Alembert,  D', 

406 

Ambrosia,                           248 

»« 

^ 

Alexander  of  Hales, 

115 

America,    its     distance 

0 

J3 

I.  of  Russia, 

401 

from  Europe  ;  its  ex- 

c 

I.  of  Scotland, 

319 

tent  ;  wily  called  the 

0 

II.  of  Scotland, 

319 

New  World  ;  its  dis- 

(4 
3 

3 
0 

.2 

III.  of  Scotland, 

319 

coverers,   31  ;    Cabot, 

a. 

The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330 

Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 

o 

AJVAZ  YTICAL 

INDEX. A.                         XV 

Columbus,  Vespucci, 

Anchises,                             244 

CO 

1 

31,  306  ;  origin  of  the 

Ancient  History,               219 

1^ 

name,     307  ;     United 

literature,  of  what 

« 

States  of,                        362 

it  consists,                         94 

o 

America,     North,     23 ; 

Andes,                                    24 

03 

rivers,  26  ;  lakes,  26  ; 

Angelo,  Michael,       171,  172 

s 

people,  31  ;  principal 

Angles ;   the,   311  ;    ar- 

o 

countries,    31  ;    chief 

rive  in  England,            312 

CO 

towns,                                 31 

Anglo-Saxon  race,  Z^  \ 

(0 

America,  South,  23,  31  ; 

origin   of  term,   312  ; 

people  ;         principal 

kingdoms,  312  ;  insti- 

iS 

countries,      31  ;      re- 

tutions ;    distinctions 

at 

markable    for  volca- 

of   rank,    315  ;    serf- 

1 

noes,                                  37 

dom,                                  316 

c 

American     Declaration 

Aniello,  Tommaso, 

.s 

of  Independence,           362 

Animal    creation     (see 

«r 

American  Indian  race,       Zt, 

Animals),                          70 

1 

' Literature,                 168 

Animal    kingdom    (see 

£ 

writers,  the   more 

Animals),                           70 

t»4 

eminent,                  169 

Animal  painting,               170 

o 

Stamp  Act,                361 

Animalcules,                  74,  75 

Animals,  ideas  that  first 

•3 

ment  of,                 362 

occur    to    the    mind 

o 
O 

modern  opinion  of,  363 

concerning,    70 ;    the 

American     war,    181 2- 

lower,     what     meant 

1814,                                367 

by  ;     prey    on     each 

'^ 

Amerigo  Vespucci,     31,  306 

other  ;    nature's  plan 

^ 

Amiens,  treaty  of              -i^dd 

for        ridding        fne 

f^ 

Ammon,                               238 

ground  of  dead,  ;  i  ; 

C 

Ammonite,   t^Z  \    origin 

the  balance  of  animal 

H 

of  the  word,                    238 

life  ;  animal  life,  how 

o 

Amphibious  animals,         74 

affected    by  climate ; 

G 

Amphictyon,                      257 

how    at     one     time 

Qt 

Amphictyonic  Council,    256 

classed ;  this  classifi- 

(0 

Amphitheatres,  Roman,  279 

cation,     why     -aban- 

t 

Amphitrite,                         246 

doned  ;    the    modern 

Amphitryon,                       243 

classification  of ;   the 

Q 

Amram,                              226 

sub-kingdoms  in  this 

Amsterdam,                         28 

classification  ;  rayed  ; 

Analysis,         chemical ; 

Dulpy  ;    jointed,    72  ; 

.2 

how    effected  ;   value 

3ack-boned,    72,    78  ; 

•3 

of,                                      40 

gregarious  ;  pairing  ; 

Anarchy,                              221 

oviparous  ;       vivipa- 

The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun  is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


V 

a, 

Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian   Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C.— See  page  273 

xvi                          ANALYTICAL   INDEX, A. 

V 

rous  ;  DVOviparous,73  ; 

Aphrodite,                          248 

J. 

digitigrade      quadru- 

Apis,                                   238 

1 

peds  ;         plantigrade 

Apocrypha,                           93 

i 

b 

quadrupeds ;       hiber- 

Apollo,                      244,  246 

% 

N 

nating  ;        domestic  ; 

Belvidere,                  181 

0 

Q 

"§ 

amphibious ;     parasi- 

Apostle, meaning  of,          96 

^ 

tic  ;  lowest  forms  of, 

Apotheosis,                         242 

6 

3 

.. 

74  ;  cold-blooded,  78  ; 

Appeal,    courts    of,    in 

2 

suck -giving,    78,    80  ; 

Great  Britain,                205 

X 

O 

pouched  ;      gnawing. 

to  Rome,  instance 

•a 

4) 

80  ;           ruminating  ; 

of,                                      269 

a 

thick-skinned ;     wild. 

Apple  of  Discord,  ori- 

fi 

81  ;      difference      be- 

gin of,                              252 

0 

tween  the  intelligence 

April,  origin  of  name,       ZZ 

Q 

(0 

of     the     lower,    and 

Apse,  the,                            187 

0 

ha 

that  of  man,  82  ;  four- 

Aquarius,                               20 

^ 

£ 

handed  ;  two-handed. 

Aqueous  rocks,                    32 

M 

8> 

81  ;   fabulous,  of  the 

Aquinas,  Thomas,             115 

5 

1 

Middle  Ages,                 121 

Arabella  Stuart,   Lady, 

2 

.2 

Anne,    Queen    of  Eng- 

Zl^^ 335 

0 

.. 

land,     husband     and 

Arabians,    modern    Eu- 

s 

(4 
'5 

family,  351;  death  of,  354 

rope  indebted  to  the,    293 

< 

Anne,  Princess  of  Den- 

Arabian Nights'  Enter- 

to 
3 

a 

mark,                                333 

tainments,  origin   of ; 

P 

CO 

Anno  Domini,                   219 

how  made  known  in 

V 

3 

Annual  plants,                     68 

Europe,                            117 

Annual     Register,    the 

Arabic  Language,               94 

H 

O 

first,                                  154 

literature,    period 

§ 

Anson,  Lord,                     357 

of,                                      116 

^ 

Antarctic  Circle,                 19 

Arachnida,  the,                     78 

< 

Antennae  of  insects,            77 

Arago,                                  418 

6 

Anthem,                               192 

Arcadia,                               256 

ft 

X 

Anti-corn-law  League,     370 

Arcadian  simplicity,         256 

2 

V 

Jacobin,  the  ;  poet- 

Arcadius,                             288 

•55 

A) 

JS 

ry   of,    chief    writers 

Arch,    the,    in    ancient 

•g 

0 

in,                                      161 

architecture,                    i^^ 

J 

(4 

Antiochus  Epiphanes,      240 

Arch  of  Titus,                    281 

0 

V 

III.,                             240 

Archbishop  of  Canter- 

1 

(d 

Antiquities,  British,         208 

bury,  first,                        315 

0 

^ 

Antisthenes,                       106 

Archaeology,                       207 

0 

ii 

(A 

Antoninus  Pius,                275 

Archimedes,                       108 

(U 

> 

Antony,  Mark,                   273 

Architecture,  of  the  Mid- 

c 

g 

Apelles,                             170 

dle  Ages,  119  ;  in  an- 

V 

rhe    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 

Ambrosia,   in   Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Gods. — See  page   248. 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX. A.                       xvii 

cient   times  ;    Cyclo- 

Army, first  standing,  in 

pean  ;  styles  of  Gre- 

Europe, ^                        375 

cian,     185  ;     Roman, 

Arno,  the  river,                 267 

186  ;    Saracenic  ;  By- 

Arnold of  Winkelried,    378 

zantine,    187  ;    Eliza- 

Artaxerxes,                        235 

bethan,  188;    Gothic, 

Artemis,                               247 

119,  187  ;  Italian,  189  ; 

Arthur,  King,                    312 

Renaissance,        188  ; 

and  his  Knights  of 

Scottish,  189;  Tudor,  188 

the  Round  Table,         120 

Architrave  of    a  build- 

Articulata, the               72,  76 

ing,                                   190 

Art  of  painting,                17c 

Arctic  Circle,  the,               19 

,   the  ceramic   (see 

Archons,                              257 

Ceramic),                 182,  183 

Areopagus,                         258 

Arts,   occult,    118  ;  the 

Ares,  247  ;  Hill  of            258 

fine,      169  ;      plastic, 

Argentine     Confedera- 

178 ;  the  faculty  of,      216 

tion,                                    31 

Aryans,                                   94 

Argillaceous  soil,               35 

Ar^^an  races,                      234 

Argolis,                              256 

Ascanius,                            244 

Argonautic  expedition,  242 

Ascham,  Roger,                139 

Argus,        •                          248 

Asia,      23  ;      principal 

Ariadne,                              255 

countries       of,      30 ; 

Arianism,                            115 

people  of,  what  often 

Aries,                                    20 

called,                               30 

Ariosto,                                123 

Asiatic  Russia,                    30 

Aristides,                             259 

Turkey,                        30 

Aristocratic        govern- 

Aspasia,                              260 

ment,                       220,  221 

Assassination,  instances 

Aristarchus  ;  a  modern,  109 

of,                                    429 

Aristippus,                          105 

Assembly  of  Divines  at 

Aristocles,                          106 

Westminster,                 339 

Aristophanes,             104,  262 

Assignats,                          470 

Aristotle,                     104,  262 

Asshur,                               232 

Arithmetical  figures,  or- 

Assyria,                             232 

igin  of,                            393 

Assyrian  captivity,  228; 

Arius,                                   115 

religion,   232  ;  sculp- 

Arkwright, Richard,        365 

tures,                               233 

Armada,  the  Spanish,      332 

Assyrians,                  224,  232 

Armagh,  See  of,                311 

Astophus,                           292 

Arminians,                          134 

Astrologers,                         22 

Arminius,                            134 

Astrology,    nature    of; 

Armoria.  bearings,           210 

nations  believed  to  be 

Arnim,                                134 

proficient    in ;    confi- 

Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70.— See   page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered   12.— See  page   242. 


XVlll 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX.- 


118 


105 
418 

115 

254 

257 


243 
243 
245 


dence   in,  how  shak- 
en, 

Astronomy,  11  ;  notions 
of  the  ancients  re- 
specting, II, 

Ateliers  Nationaux, 

Athanasius, 

Athene,  247, 

Athenian  government, 

Athens,         28,  254,  256,  257 

Atlantic  Ocean,  23  ;  or- 
igin of  name, 

Atlantis, 

Atlas, 

Atmosphere,  the,  of 
what  composed,  41  ; 
its  vital  principle,  41; 
its  height  not  of  uni- 
form consistency,  47  ; 
where  it  best  retains 
the  sun's  heat  ;  its 
pressure  on  the  earth; 
its  pressure,  why  not 
felt  by  us,  47  ;  exam- 
ples of  its  pressure ; 
temperature  at  which 
water  boils  affected 
by  pressure  of  the;  its 
pressure,  how  meas- 
ured, 48;  its  salubrity, 
how  maintained  (see 
Air), 

Atropos, 

Atterbury,  Dr.  Francis, 

Attic  salt, 
wit. 


Attica, 

Attila,  284 ;  a  modern. 

Attraction,  capillary, 
59  ;  examples  of. 

Attraction  of  gravita- 
tion ;  principle  of ; 
how  affected  by  dis- 


65 

250 

151 

257 
257 
256 
28s 


60 


tance,  56  ;  why  not 
the  same  in  all  parts 
of  globe  at  the  sea- 
level,  57  ;  operation 
of,  as  regards  liquids,  58 
Attrition,  34 

Augeas  243 

Augsburg,  confession  of,  382 
Augurs,  the,  265 

Augury,  origin  of,  265 

August,  origin  of  name,    88 
Augustan  age,  274 

Augustus   Caesar,    273, 

274  ;  successors  of,       274 
Augustine,  St.  115,  121 

Aurelius,  283 

Aureola,  in  art,  178 

Aurora,  248 

Aurora  Borealis,  54 

Auspices,  the,  265 

Austen,  Miss,  166 

Austerlitz,  battle  of,         413 
Australia,  20,  30 

Austria,  27,  430  ;  capi- 
tal of,  28  ;  origin  of 
the  national  impor- 
tance of,  376  ;  first 
connection  of,  with 
Hungary  and  Bo- 
hemia, 377 
Austrian        succession, 

war  of  the,  404 

Autocrat,  220 

Auto  da  F6,  an,  394 

Autonomy  of  states,  222 
Auvergne,  extinct  vol- 
canoes in,  37 
Aventine  Hill,  277 
Avernus,  lake  of,  2O5 
Aves,    78 ;    nature     of, 

orders  of,  79 

Avignon,   residence   of 
the  Popes  at,  302 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page  407. 


— 

03 

Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Grods See  page   248 

1 

6 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. B.                        xix 

1 
S 

"3 

c 

E 

Baal,                                   235 

5. 

Barnacle,  erroneous  be- 

% 

Baalbeck,                            235 

lief  respecting  the,          76 

S 

Babel,                                   232 

Barnave,                              407 

C9 

Babylon,                       229,  232 

Barometer,       construc- 

0 

(^ 

Babylonia,                           232 

tion   of  ;    why   called 

;h 

•S 

Babylonian  religion,        232 

weather-glass,                   48 

I 

M 

Babylonians,               224,  232 

Baron,  dignity  of,  intro- 

0 

<4 

Babylonish  Captivity,      229 

duced,                               317 

*s 

Bacchantes,                         248 

Baronets  first  created,     336 

0 

rt 
^ 

Bacchus,                              248 

Barron,  Isaac,                     147 

** 

Bach,                                    191 

Barrows,                              208 

Bacon,  Lord,              143,  2iZ^ 

Basalt,                                    -2,7, 

CO 

o 

Bacon,  Roger,                    300 

Basilica,  a,                          186 

^ 

s 

Bagdad,  caliphs  of,           293 

Bas-relief,  sculpture  in,    180 

s 

Baiae,                            265,  281 

Bass  Rock,  the,                348 

p< 

g- 

Baillie,  Joanna,                  156 

Bastile,  389  ;  destroyed,  407 

CO 

00 

Bajazet,                                304 

Batavi,                                  394 

u 

J 

-s 

Balance     of       nature ; 

Batrachia,  the,                      78 

V) 

what  meant  by  ;   in- 

Battle of  Actium,              273 

0 

to 

stance  of  its  derange- 

Austerlitz,                 413 

c4 

M 

G 

by  man,                              32 

Bannockburn,           323 

. 

Baliol,  John,                      322 

Blenheim,                  351 

a> 

g 

Ballantyne,  James,            166 

Bosworth,                  326 

s 

CO 

Balloon,  a,                            49 

Bothwell  Bridge,     344 

J 

■^ 

Balmerino,  Lord,              358 

Bunker's  Hill,          362 

0 

i  <4 

Baltic  Sea,                            23 

Clontarf,                    315 

0 

^ 

Balzac,                                  130 

Corunna,                    367 

M 

Bancroft,  George,             169 

Cressy,               300,  344 

CO 

3 

Banim,  John,                      166 

Culloden,                  358 

(4 

3 

o 

0 

Bank-note,                          214 

Dettingen,                 357 

fi 

•g 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph,            162 

Dunbar,           ,           341 

0 
u 

'4 

Banks     established     in 

Edgehill,                   340 

>» 

^ 

Great  Britain,                 350 

Flodden,                    331 

Bannockburn,  battle  of,  323 

Fontenoy,                  357 

0) 

Barbauld,  Mrs.                   156 

Grandson,                 379 

c 
^ 

Barbour,  John,                   139 

Hastings,                    316 

cS 

Bards,  the,                           301 

Jena,                           414 

W 

Barebones  Parliament,    341 

Killiecrankie,           347 

0 

4^ 

Barley,  chief  use  of,           67 

Leipsic,                     415 

0 

Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page    230 

The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12. — See  page   242. 


XX 


ANALYTICAL    INLEX.- 


-B. 


Battle  of  Lutzen, 

■ Malplaquet, 

Marathon, 

Marengo, 

Marston  Moor, 

Morat, 

Morgarten 

Naseby 

Nations, 

Oudenarde, 

Pavia, 

Pharsalia, 

Philiphaugh, 

Philippi, 

Pinkie, 

Plassey, 

Platea, 

Poictiers, 

Prague, 

Prestonpans, 

Pultova, 

Quebec, 

Ramillies, 

Salamis, 

Sempach, 

Sheriffmuir, 

Shrewsbury, 

the  Boyne, 

the  Nile, 

Trafalgar, 

Wagram, 

Waterloo, 

Worcester, 


Battles  of  the  Civil 

in  England, 
Baxter,  Richard, 
Bay,  a, 

Bay  of  Naples, 
Bayard,  Chevalier, 
Bayle, 
B.C., 

Bear,  tlie  Great, 
Beaton,  Cardinal, 


3S5 

351 

235,259 

412 

.340 
379 
378 
340 
415 
351 
375 
271 

551 
375 

360 

259 
324 
384 
2>S^ 
398 
360 

351 
259 
378 
356 
325 
348 
412 

414 

341 


War 

340 

147 

23 

265,  281 

the,    375 

128 

219 

13 
332 


Beattie,  James, 

Beaumont,  Francis, 

Beautiful,  the, 

Beauty,  lines  of  Keats 
on, 

Becket,  Thomas  a, 

Beckford,  William, 

Bede, 

Bed  of  justice,  a. 

Bee,  eyes  of  the, 

Beer,  from  what  pre- 
pared, 

Beethoven, 

Belfast, 

Belgae, 

Belgium,  27  ;  capital  of, 
28  ;  kingdom  of,  con- 
stituted, 

Belisarius, 

Bell,  Currer, 

Belles-Lettres,  216, 

Belligerents, 

Bellini, 

Bellona, 

Belshazzar, 

Benedictine  monks, 

Ben  Nevis, 

Benecke, 

Benefit  of  clergy, 

Bentham,  Jeremy, 

Benvenuto  Cellini, 

Beranger, 

Bergheim, 

Berkeley,  Dr.  George, 

Berlin,  28;  congress  of, 

Berlin  Decree,  the, 

Berne, 

Bernadotte, 

Berry,  Duke  de, 

Bethlehem, 

Bewick,  Thomas, 

Beza, 

Bias, 


15s 
143 
219 

219 

320 

157 
116 

406 

77 

67 
191 

29 
394 


424 
288 
166 
217 
201 
192 
247 
234 
290 

29 
134 
200 
163 
182 
129 
175 
151 
431 
367 

28 

423 
417 

230 

184 

383 
102 


The   Bastile   was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page   407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. B.                          xxi 

Bible,  meaning   of  the 

Blind  Harry,                       140 

(U 
0) 

W 

W 

1 

word  ;    in   what   lan- 

Blockade, the  right  o.^     201 

1 

[ 

guages          originally 

Boadicea,                             308 

6 

V 

written,  95  ;    transla- 

Boccaccio,                          123 

n 

O 

tions,      96  ;       present 

Boeotia,                                256 

5? 

03 

English  veision  exe- 

Boeotians,                           260 

CO 

s 

cuted,    96  ;   prophetic 

Boerhaave,                           135 

■i 

Q 

books    of,    229  ;    au- 

Bohemia,                            377 

1 

thorized    version    ef- 

Bohemians,                        301 

s 

i 

fected,                              335 

Boiardo,                               123 

Biblia  Pauperum,  the,      184 

Boileau,                       127,  392 

Bibliographer,  a,                  97 

Bolingbroke,  Lord,  150,  355 

•a 

t) 

Bibliography,                        97 

Bolivia,                                  31 

^ 

Biennial  plants,                   (i2> 

Bolognese     school     of 

pq 

c 

Bilderdyke,                         135 

painting,          leading 

•  IH 

Bill,  a,                                  198 

painters  of  the,               172 

ef 

Bills  of  exchange,  213  ; 

Bombay,                                30 

S 

ho 

invented,                          305 

Bombyx  mori,  the,              78 

< 

Bimana,  the,                         81 

Bonaparte,     Napoleon, 

cit 

i«-l 

Birds,    nature    of,    79  ; 

(see  Napoleon). 

^ 

o 

orders  of,  79  ;  climb- 

,  Louis,                        419 

'm 

CO 

i^g>  79  ;  gallinaceous. 

,  Louis  Napoleon,     419 

< 

L4 

80  ;  perching,   79,  80  ; 

Bonheur,  Rosa,                  174 

4> 
U 
0 

S 

rapacious,      79,      80 ; 

Book,  the  first  printed 

t 

vy 

^ 

running,    79  ;    scrap- 

in England,                     138 

0 

U.1 

ing  ;    swimming,    79 ; 

Books,  ancient  form  of  ; 

0 

S 

wading,                              79 

how  prepared  before 

0 

>» 

Bismarck,                            430 

the  invention  of  print- 

3 

«Q 

Birmingham,                        28 

ing,                                    97 

Bivalve  shells,  76  ;  ex- 

Bopp,                                  134 

0 
0 

H 

ample  of,                          76 

Border  of  England  and 

c 

0 

Black,  pipes  for  warm- 

Scotland settled,            319 

% 

a 

ing       houses,       why 

Boreas,                                 249 

u 

painted,                              43 

Borneo,                                  23 

2 

rt 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  360 

Boroughs,              -             296 

.S 

^ 

Black,  Joseph,                   161 

Bossuet,                       127,  392 

c 

^ 

Blackstone,  Sir  William,  204 

Boston,                                   31 

S 

♦; 

Blair,  Dr.  Hugh,                158 

Boswell,  James,                 155 

n 

0 

Blake,  Admiral,                 341 

,  Sir  Alexander,         166 

i 

t^ 

Blanc,  Louis,                      418 

Bosworth,  battle  of,          326 

5 

,  Mont,                            28 

Bothwell,  Earl  of,             333 

v 

? 

Blank  verse,                       100 

Bridge,  battle  of,      34^ 

0 

Blenheim,  battle  of,         351 

Boulders,                              34 

•0 

2 

rhe  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles.— See  page  15. 

Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page 

273. 

bo 

Pi 

xxii                         ANALYTICAL 

,    INDEX. B. 

V 

en 

Bourbon,  House  of,          384 

arms    of,   how   quar- 

1 

Bourbons    restored    to 

tered,   2 TO  (see   Eng- 

« 

France,                            416 

land). 

Bouidaloue,               127,  392 

"Britain,    Great;'    first 

N 

Bower,  Walter,                   1.39 

introduced,                      1,7^^ 

o 

Boyle,     Hon.     Robert, 

,   Great,  under  the 

6\ 

Lectures,                         148 

Stuarts,    335    to    347, 

.. 

Boyne,  battle  of,                348 

352  to  354;  the  civil 

3 

Bradford,                                28 

war  in,  339  ;  the  Com- 

o 

Brahe,  Tycho,                     131 

monwealth,  341  ;   the 

Brahma,                                303 

Restoration,  342  ;  the 

1 

Brahmanical  religion,      303 

Revolution,  347  ;  Na- 

rj 

Brain,  the,                             84 

tional      Debt      com- 

Brandenburg, Duchy  of,  402 

mences  ;   in  the   17th 

^ 
U 

,  Kingdom  of,            402 

century,   350  ;    under 

hfl 

Brantome,                            126 

the   House   of    Han- 

.2? 

Brass,                                     38 

over,  355  to  373  ;  re- 

9i 

Brazil,  31  ;  427,  empire 

bellion  of  1715,  356  ; 

M 

of,                                     427 

rebellion  of  1745,358  ; 

CO 

Bread,                                   67 

at  war  with  America, 

Bread  and  Circuses,         274 

2i(y2>  \     ^t     war     with 

'S 

Bremen,                               427 

France,  365    to   368  ; 

<J 

Brennus,                              266 

rebellion  in  Ireland  ; 

Brewster,  Sir  David,         167 

Ireland     united     to. 

Brian  Boroihme,               315 

Z(i(i ;    second   Ameri- 

Briareus,                             251 

can  war,  367  ;  at  war 

a 

Brissot,                                407 

with  Russia  ;   Indian 

o 

Bristol,                                   28 

revolt,     371  ;     Abys- 

s 

Britain,  early  condition 

sinian       expedition  ; 

(« 
>» 

of  ;     origin     of     the 

annual     income     of. 

^ 

name,  307  ;  visited  by 

372  ;    National   Debt 

Julius    Caesar ;     sub- 

of, 372  ;   progress  of 

S 

dued     by    Agricola, 

since  1707, 372;  causes 

u 

375>   308  ;    added    to 

of     the    great    pros- 

4:3 

Roman        dominion, 

perity  of,                        373 

0 

375,      308 ;      Roman 

Britain,  Great,  and  Ire- 

^ 

walls   in,   309  ;    mis- 

land,United Kingdom 

^ 

CS 

sionaries  to  ;  Christi- 

of, 27  ;  capital  of,  28  ; 

anity  introduced  into,  313 

foreign  possessions  of,    30 

Britain,  Great,  23  ;    its 

British  Antiquities,          208 

rivers,  26  ;   the  high- 

 Cabinet,  the,              194 

V 

est  mountain  in,  29  ; 

Colonies,    law    in 

C 
0 

law    in,    203 ;     royal 

he,                                  204 

The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815 See   page    368. 


m 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 


B. 


British  Constitution,  the,  194 

Essayists,  the,  149 

Flag,    changed   at 

the    union   with    Ire- 
land, 367 
■ Government,     na- 


ture of  the, 

history 

of, 

hill-forts, 

India, 

Parliament, 


consists 


the 


first, 

Brittany,  origin  of, 
Bronte,  Miss, 
Bronze, 

Bronze  Age,  the, 
Brougham,  Lord,       162, 
Brown,  Charles  B., 
Browne,  Sir  Thomas, 
Bruce,  James, 

,  Marjorie, 

,  Michael, 

,  Robert, 

Brueys, 

Brumaire,  the  month, 

Brunton,  Mrs., 

Brunswick,  House  of, 

Brussels, 

Brutus,  Lucius  Junius, 

,  Marcus  Junius, 

Bruyere, 
Bryant,  W.  C, 
Bucephalus, 
Buchanan,  George, 


194 

310 
209 
371 

353 
312 
166 

39 
242 
167 
169 

144 
159 
323 

152 
322 
127 
90 
166 

355 
28 
263 
272 
127 
169 

239 
140 


Buckingham,  Duke  of, 
Buddha, 

Buddhism,  nature  of, 
Buffon,  the  Count  de. 
Building,  part  of  a. 
Bulb,  a  ;  examples  ol^ 
Bulbous  plants, 
Bunker's  Hill,  battle  of, 
Bunsen, 
Bunyan,  John, 
Burgundians, 
Burgundy,  Duke  of, 

incorporated  with 


xxm 

304 
304 
129 
190 
68 
68 
362 
134 
147 
284 

374 

375 
283 


France, 
Burial,  Roman, 
Burke,  Edmund,  159, 364, 408 

148 

157 
160 
144 
361 
146 


Burleigh,  Lord 

Burnet,  Gilbert, 

Burney,  Frances, 

Burns,  Robert, 

Burton,  Robert, 

Bute,  Earl  of, 

Butler,  Samuel, 

Butterfly,  transforma- 
tions of  the ;  lenses 
of  the  eye  of  a, 

Byng,  Admiral, 

Byron,  Lord,  164,  424 

Byzantine  architecture, 
grand  specimens  of, 

Byzantine  Artists, 

Empire,  284,  287  ; 


77 
360 


187 
170 


duration   of ;  charac- 
ter of, 
Byzantium, 


288 
2^4 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


xxiv                       ANALYTICAL    INDEX. C. 

( 

Cabinet  pictures,               177 

■n 

Califs,  the. 

292 

,  the  British,                194 

of  Bagdaa, 

293 

Cabot,  Sebastian,        31,  306 

Caligula,                     274, 

275 

Cade,  Jack,                          325 

Calliope, 

251 

Cadmus,                               255 

Caloric, 

42 

Caelian  Hill,                        277 

Calorific, 

42 

Cjesar,  Julius,                     iii 

Calpe, 

243 

,  the  designation,       274 

Calvin,  John              £26, 

383 

,  Augustus,                  273 

Calypso, 

245 

Borgia,                       421 

Cambridge, 

28 

,  Caius,                         275 

Cambyses, 

234 

,  Caius  Julius,  271  ; 

Camden,  William, 

144 

visits     Britain,     308  ; 

Cameron,  Richard, 

344 

assasination   of,  gen- 

Cameronians, the. 

344 

eral  opinion  of,              272 

Camisard,  origin  of. 

390 

Cairns,                                   208 

Cam i sards,  the. 

39c 

Cairo,                                    237 

Camoens, 

125 

Caius  Caesar,                       275 

Campan,    Memoirs     of 

Julius       Caesar,  271 

Madame, 

404 

272,  308 

Campbell,  Lord, 

167 

Julius  Caesar  Oc- 

,  Sir  Colin, 

371 

tavianus,                         273 

,  Thomas, 

164 

Calais,  meaning  of,  310; 

Campus  Martins, 

277 

taken  by  Edward  III., 

Canaan, 

225 

324  :  an  English  pos- 

Canada,  30,   31  ;    chief 

session,      324,       376; 

towns  in,  31  ;  surren- 

taken from  English,     376 

ders  to    Great    Brit- 

Calcareous rocks,                34 

ain, 

360 

Calcutta,.                      30,  360 

Canaletto, 

172 

Black  Hole  of,          360 

Cancer,  20  ;  tropic  of, 

19 

taken   from    Eng- 

Candidate, origin  of, 

268 

lish,  359;  recovered,      360 

Canicula,  the  star, 

14 

Calderon,                             124 

Canidae,  the. 

81 

Caledonians,  the,               308 

Can  is    Major,  the   con- 

Calendar month,  a,             88 

stellation. 

14 

,  the  Julian,  86;  the 

Canning,  George, 

161 

Gregorian,    86  ;     the 

Canon  law,  the. 

202 

French  revolutionary,     90 

of  Scripture,  the. 

95 

Calends,  at  the  Greek,       89 

Canons  Regular, 

313 

The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The    Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302 

Pi 

ANALYTICAL     INDEX. C.                       xxv 

O 
09 

Canopy  of  Heaven,  the,     14 

Carrier,                                410 

1 

1 

Canova,  Antonio,               182 

Carthage,       253  ;       de- 

d 

Canterbury,                           28 

stroyed,                            270 

^ 

.3 

,  first  Archbishop  of,  314 

Cartha^enians,  the,           269 

bo 

c 

,  pilgrimages  to,        320 

Cartwright,  Rev.  D.  E.,  265 

12 

s 

Canterbury    Tales,    na- 

Caryatides,                         186 

u 

o 

ture  of  Chaucer's,          137 

Casca,                                   272 

^ 

■% 

Canute     and     the    sea. 

Cash,  origin  of  word,       211 

bo 

(It 

story  of,                            314 

Casimir,  John,                   399 

"u 

Cape,  a,                                  23 

Cassandra,                           244 

3 
Q 

o 

of  Good  Hope,  30; 

Cassius,                                272 

o 

its  passage  discovered,  306 

Castalian  Fountain,          251 

CO 

u 

o 

Cap  of  Liberty,                  407 

Castes,                                  238 

4) 

Q 

Capet,  Hugh,                     295 

Castles  in  Britain,  old,     209 

0 

CO 

Capetian  dynasty,             295 

Casus  belli,  a,                    201 

tH 

V 

Capillary  attraction,  59; 

Catiline,                              271 

rn 

examples  of,                    60 

Catechisms,  the  Larger 

6 

Capital,  a,                              28 

and  Shorter,                    340 

stock,                          214 

Catherine  L  of  Russia,    398 

0 

,4 

Capitol  of  Rome,  278  ; 

n.  of  Russia,  398 ; 

CO 

CO 

2 

saved  by  geese,              266 

death  of,                         401 

2 
0 

fl 

Capitoline  Hill,         266,  277 

Cathedrals,                         291 

Capricorn,  tropic  of,           19 

Cato,                                    270 

0 

:h 

Capricornus,                        20 

Cat-tribe,  the,       ^                81 

CO 

Caraccis,  the,                      172 

Cats,  a  Dutch  writer,        135 

4> 

:3 

Caracalla,                            283 

Catullus,                              112 

CO 

Caractacus,                         308 

Caucasus,  Mount,             250 

'0 

d 

Carbonic  acid,                      41 

Caucasian      race,     des- 

m 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  un- 

cribed; why  so  called,     82 

0 

a 

wholesome  ;  supports 

Cause  of  all  things,  the 

0) 

*j 

vegetation,                         42 

Great  First,                      11 

CO 

!3 

Carburetted     hydrogen 

Cauvin,  Jean,             126,  2>^2i 

0 

c* 

gas,                                    40 

Cavaignac,                          418 

< 

•s 

Carey,  Dr.  Henry,             192 

Cavaliers,  the,                    338 

l4-l 

4-1 

u 

Carisbrook  Castle,            340 

Cave,  Edward,                   154 

0 

« 

Carleton,  William,            166 

Cavendish,              '            330 

13 
0 

4J 

Carlisle,                                  28 

Caverns  of  Cuma,             265 

% 

jf 

Carlovingian  dynasty,     293 

Caxton,  William,      138,  326 

CO 

3 

Carlyle,  Thomas,               167 

Cecil,  William,                  330 

o 

Carnivora,                             81 

Celestial  globes,                  13 

0 

iS 

Carnot,                                411 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,           182 

0 

Caroline-Matilda,Queen 

Celsus,                                 113 

(U 

< 
.2 

of  Denmark,                  402 

Celtic  language,                 94 

eo 

Q 

1 

Vlichael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563.— See  page  172. 

The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators See    page    278. 


a' 


XXVI 


ANAL  YTICAL     INDEX.- 


Celtic  race,  ^2) 

Censors,  268 

Censorship  of  the  press,  loi 
Cent,  a,  213 

Centaurs,  245 

Central  heat  of   earth  ;  ■ 

how  manifested,  .    2)^ 

Centrifugal  force,  16 

Centurion,  Roman,  276 

Century,  87 

Ceramic   art,   the,    182; 
by   whom   cultivated 
in  ancient  times  ;  re- 
vived in  Italy,  183 
Cerberus,                    243,  251 
Cereal   plants,  why    so 

called,  67 

Ceres,  246,  247 

Cervantes,  124 

Cetacea,  the,  81 

Ceylon,  23,  30 

Chaldee  language,  94 

Chalk  beds,  t^t^ 

Chalmers,  Rev.  Dr.  167 

Chaluz,  Castle  of,  321 

Chaldea,  232 

Chaldeans,  224,  232 

Chalybeate  springs,  37 

Chambers,  Ephraim,         154 

,  Sir  William,  189 

Chambord,  Count  de,       417 
Champollion,  207 

Channel,  a,  24 

Channel  Islands,  origin 
of  their  possession  by 
England,  317 

Charing,  322 

Cross,  origin  of,       322 

Charlemagne,  293  ;  Em- 
peror of  the  Romans  ; 
his  crown  preserved 
at  Vienna,  294 

Charles  I.  of  England, 


34a 


346 


i45>  ZZ^  I  his  collision 
with  parliament,  336 ; 
his  measures  respect- 
ing the  church  in 
Scotland,  338  ;  his 
fate  ;  his  family, 
Charles  II.  of  England, 

340,  342  ;  his  death, 
Charles  V.,  Emperor  of 

Germany,  380,  394 

404 
374 
375 
376 
416 

397 
397 

293 
421 

295 
294 


VI.  of  Germany 

—  VII.  of  France, 

—  VIII.  of  France, 

—  IX.  of  France, 

—  X.  of  France, 

—  XI.  of  Sweden, 

—  XII.  of  Sweden, 

—  Edward,  Prince, 

—  Martel, 

—  of  Anjou, 

—  of  Lorraine, 

—  the  Bald, 

—  the      Bold, 


death, 

the  Simple, 


374 


379 

300 

369 

251 


Charlotte,  Princess, 

Charon, 

Chartres,  Duke  de,  410,  417 

Charybdis,  whirlpool  of,    27 

Chatham, 

,  Earl  of, 

Chateaubriand, 

Chatterton,  Thomas, 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey, 

Cheiroptera,  the,  81  ; 
name  given  to  them 
by  Linnaeus, 

Chelonia,  the. 

Chemical  affinity, 

analysis  ;  how  ef- 
fected, 40  ;  value  of. 

Chemical       decomposi- 


28 

363 
129 

155 
137 


81 
78 
40 

40 


tion. 


40 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


VNIYEftSITY 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See   page    133 

. 

C4 
00 

8, 

CO 

ANALYTICAL     INDEX. C,                      xxvii 

!? 

& 
a. 

V 
V 

01 

Chemical  discoveries,         40 

Church,  first  great  divis- 

CO 

1 

1 

Chemistry  defined  ;  ori- 

ion in  the,                        291 

2 

gin    of     the    science 

of   England,  con- 

of,                              39,  118 

stitution  of,  how  sup- 

0 

z 

Cheops,                                237 

ported,  199;  orders  of 

CO 

•a 
c 

Chevalier,   the   Young, 

clergy  in  the,                  20c 

enters  Edinburgh,         358 

Church     of     Scotland, 

c 

Chevalier  Bayard,             575 

constitution    of,  how 

3q 

.2 

Chevalier  de  St.  George,  352 

supported,  general  as- 

s 

Chili,  31         Chicago,        31 

sembly   of   the,    200  ; 

u 

Chilon,                                  102 

the  Free,                          20c 

2 

China,  30;  character  of. 

Church,  the  Greek,           29c 

0 

30  ;     in    the    Middle 

,  the  Latin,                  29a 

0 

It 

Ages,    302  ;    subdued 

,  the  Medieval,           290 

0 

0 

by      Mongols,      303  ; 

in  the  Middle  Ages, 

xn 

Great  Wall  of,               302 

influence  of  the,             297 

biO 

"o 

Chivalry,  influence   of. 

Church  of  England  at 

1 

bo 
G 

298,  299 

the  Restoration,             343 

^ 

0 

Chloris,                                 249 

Cibber,                                150 

0 

Christ,    birth    of,    230 ; 

Cicero,    no,    271,    286  ; 

03 

0 

q' 
S 

meaning  of,  230;  cru- 

residence of,                   282 

'm 

cified,                                275 

Cid,  the,                              124 

>^ 

u 

f-i 

Christian  Era,  the,              85 

Cimabue,                            171 

^ 

5 

J 

Christian    IV.   of   Den- 

Cimbri, the,                        270 

S 

mark,                                401 

Cimbric  war,                       270 

0 

a> 

VII.  of  Denmark,    402 

Cimmerian  darkness,        265 

o 

ctf 

Christianity,    231,    238 ; 

Cimmerians,  the,               265 

adopted  by  Constan- 

Cincinnati,                            31 

4) 

tine,  284 ;  introduced 

Cincinnatus,                       266 

5 

6 

into  Britain,                   313 

Circe,                                   245 

0 

3 

Christians   under  early 

Cirrus,  the  cloud,               46 

^ 

Roman  emperors,  281 ; 

Cities,  Free,                        296 

(U 

u 

^ 

why    persecuted     by 

Citizenship,  Roman,         268 

■2 

(*H 

Romans,                          286 

City  of  palm-trees,            22^ 

o 

Christopher  North,           166 

Civil    day;    a,    how   di- 

(0 

.2 

Chronology  defined,           85 

vided,                '                  92 

tJ 

S 

of    ancient   times 

history,  219;  rights,  220 

uncertain,                        224 

month,  a,                      88 

(0 

> 

Chrysalis,                              77 

rights,                           ^z 

D 

Chrysostom,                        115 

war   in   England, 

3 
^ 

fc 

Church,  the  Fathers  of 

326  ;  the  great,    339  ; 

1-t 

(U 

the,   1-5  ;  councils  of 

chief    battles   of    the 

0 

the,                                    290 

great,                                340 

»— » 

09 

V 

.2 
> 

C<1 

H  L 
] 

fe 

Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 

Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65. 


en 


xxviu 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 


Civil  year,  87 

Civilization,  summary 
of  events  which  pro- 
moted modern,  307 
Clan,  a,  220 
Clare,  John,  165 
Clarendon,  Earl  of,  146 
Clarke,  Dr.  Samuel,  151 
Classical  languages,  94 
Classics,  the  Delphian,  loi 
Claude  Lorraine,  173 
Claudius,  274 
Clay,  zz,  35 
Cleithenes,  258 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  115 
Cleobulus, 
Cleopatra, 
Clergy,  the  regular  ;  the 

secular, 
Clergy,  benefit  of  the, 
of   the    church   of 


273 

291 

200 


England, 
Clients,  the, 
Climate,  how  it  affects 

animal  life. 


200 
264 

72 


251 
360 

93 
315 

289 
250 


Clinical,  what  meant  by,  217 

Clio, 

Clive,  Lord, 

Clocks,  when  invented, 

Clontarf,  battle  of, 

Clotaire, 

Clotho, 

Clouds,  what  they  are  ; 
why  they  disappear 
in  fine  weather,  44  ; 
height  of  the  ;  where 
most  found  ;  how 
caused  ;  classification 
of, 

Clovis, 

Clyde,  the  river. 

Coal,  of  what  composed. 

Coat  of  arms, 


46 

289 

26 

36 
210 


Cobden,  Richard, 

Cockburn,  Mrs., 

Cocoon,  a. 

Code  Napoleon, 

Codrus, 

Coke,  Sir  Edward^ 

Colbert, 

Colchis, 

Cold,  42  ;  why  it  be- 
comes suddenly  cold 
in  some  fine  climates 
when  the  sun  sets. 

Cold-blooded  animals, 

Coleoptra,  the, 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Tay- 
lor, 

Coligny, 

Coliseum,  the, 

College,  a, 

Collins,  William, 

Coleman,  the  Younger, 
George, 

Cologne, 

Colonization, 

Colony,  a. 

Colossus  of  Rhodes, 

Color,  as  effecting  heat, 
43  ;  in  the  skin  an  ef- 
fect of  circumstances ; 
of  the  negro  ;  how 
accounted  for. 

Colors,  primary  ;  com- 
pound ;  prismatic  ;  of 
the  rainbow,  how  pro- 
duced. 

Columbaria, 

Columbidae,  the 

Columbus,  Christopher, 
31,  306;  discoveries  of,  306 

Columella,  113 

Combustion,  41 

Comedy, 

Comets,  14;  their  ap 


371 

i6c 

202 

257 
204 

39^ 
242 


51 
73 

77 

163 

381 

278 

215 
152 

156 
296 
223 
223 
261 


51 

283 

80 


100 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


O4 

The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of    45   Miles.— See   page  47 

1 

& 
2. 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. C.                       xxix 

03 

pearaiice,     14 ;    their 

name,  284  ;  patriarchs 

nature,  15;  their  num- 

of, 291;  taken  by  Ma- 

m 

1 

Mh 

ber  ;  their  motion,           14 

homet,                .              304 

1 

Q 
< 

CO 

Comines,  Philippe  de      125 

Constantius,                        283 

Common  law,                     203 

Constellations,  13  ; 

K 

Commonwealth,  the,         341 

names  and  situations 

6\ 

5? 

Compass,  the  Mariner's. 

of  the  ;  how  learned,      13 

fl 

(-1 

(See  Mariner's    Com- 

Constitution, a,                  221 

^ 

pass.) 

Constitutional        mon- 

Q 

Comte,  Augusta,                130 

archy,                               221 

> 

3 

V 

Comus,                                 248 

Consuls,  Roman,               264 

►M 

Conchology,                          76 

,     mercantile,     the 

> 

Concord,  temple  of,   at 

exequator  of,                  206 

§ 

2 

Rome,                               278 

Continental  literature,     122 

2 

£ 

Concordat,  a,                       203 

Continents ;  their  num- 

I 

4) 

Concordats,                         203 

ber,                                      23 

0 

Concordia,                           265 

Contraband  of  war,          202 

A 

^ 

Conde,                                  388 

Convention  of  estates,  a,  223 

*S 

i 

,  Prince  of,                  388 

Convocation,                       199 

0 

0 

the  Great,                   z^'^ 

Cook,  Captain,  discov- 

0 

(U 

f3 

Conditional  convention 

eries  of,                           365 

a 

0 

between  England  and 

Cooper,  Anthony  Ash- 

3 

'o 

Turkey,                            431 

ley,                                    150 

a 

Condorcet,                           129 

,  J.  F.,                          169 

g 

0 

Confederate    States    of 

,  the  painter,               176 

>» 

a 

America,                          429 

Cope,  General,                  358 

A 

(^ 

Confession     of     Augs- 

Copenhagen,                        28 

4) 

cd 

burg,                         ^        382 

Copernicus,  Nicolas,        131 

a 

•d 

Confession     of     Faith, 

Copper,  35  ;  alloyed,         39 

1 

CO 

> 

Westminster,                  340 

Copyright,                           168 

Confucius,                     98,  302 

Corallifera,  the,                   75 

> 

w 
0 

Conge  d'  elire,  a,                199 

Corday,  Charlotte,            409 

0 

Conglomerate,                      34 

Cork,                                      29 

2 

a 

Congress  of  Vienna,        416 

Corn,  67  ;  Indian,               67 

% 

ctf 

of  Berlin,  changes 

Corn-laws,                          370 

S 

3 

0 
0 

effected  by,                     431 

Cornaro,  Louis,    '             123 

Congreve,                            150 

Corneille,      Pierre,     le 

Consols,                              213 

Grand,                     127,  392 

3 

rt 

Constance,    Huss     and 

Cornwall,  Duchy  of,        205 

iJ 

C 

s 

Jerome  burned  at,         381 

Coronation,  a,                    198 

u 

K 

m 

Constantine,                        283 

Corporation,  a,                  223 

TJ 

•d 

Constantinople,          28 ; 

Corinth,                               256 

§ 

a 

founded ;    origin      of 

Coriolanus,                        266 

rhe  First  English  Encyclopaedia  w 

as  Published  in  1728.— See  page  154. 

The    Amazons    were   a    Nation    of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


XXX                         ANALYTICAL    INDEX. C. 

Correggio,                           172 

Lord    Protector,  341, 

Corsica,       taken        by 

342  ;  in  Ireland,  341  ; 

France,                            393 

in      Scotland,      341  ; 

Corunna,  battle  of,            367 

death,                               34  -i 

Corvinus,  Matthias,          377 

Cromwell,  Richard,          342 

Cosmogony,                        ^23 

Cronos,                                246 

Cotton,  Charles,                 145 

Crown,    the,    the    term 

Council   of   Five  Hun- 

how employed,               198 

dred,                                 411 

Crusades,      the,       297  ; 

Councils  of  the  Church,  290 

origin  of   the  word ; 

Country  villas  of    the 

value  of  the,                   298 

Romans,                          281 

Crust  of  the  earth,  what 

County,  origin  of,             315 

meant  by  the,                   32 

Coup  d'Etat,  a,                  412 

Crustacea,  the,                     76 

of  i8th  Brumaire,     412 

Cryptogamia ;           the. 

of    December    2d, 

plants     included     in 

1851,                                419 

the  ;       how       repro- 

Court of  High  Commis- 

duced,                               66 

sion,           ^                      339 

Cryptogamous      plants 

of  Session,                 204 

(see     Cryptogamia)  ; 

of  St.  Germain,         352 

vegetation   in    dwell- 

 of  Star  Chamber,      2>Z^ 

ing   houses,   familiar 

Cousin,  Victor,          130,  219 

examples  of,                    67 

Covenanters,  the,              2i2>^ 

Crystallisation,                    41 

Coverdale,  Myles,               96 

Cuba,                                23,  31 

Cowley,  Abraham,            145 

Cudworth,  Dr.  Ralph,     147 

Cowper,  William,              159 

Culdees,  the,                      313 

Crabbe,  Rev.  George,      162 

Culloden,  battle  of,          358 

Cranmer,  Thomas,            329 

Cuma,                                 281 

Crannoges,                          209 

,  caverns  of,                265 

Crater,  a,                               36 

Cumaean  sibyl,                   265 

Crawford,  Robert,             152 

Cumberland,  Duke  of,     358 

Cressy,  battle   of,  324 ; 

,    origin    of,    312  ; 

gunpowder  first  used 

severed    from     Scot- 

by the  English  at  the,  300 

land,                                319 

Crete,  the  bull  of,             243 

Cumulus,  the  cloud,           4^ 

Crusa,                                   244 

Cunningham,  Allan,         166 

Crimean  War,                    371 

Cupid,                                  247 

Crito,                                     105 

Curfew,  the,                       317 

Croesus,  as  rich  as,          234 

Currency,                            214 

Cromlech,  a,                       208 

Currents,                               27 

Crompton,  Samuel,           365 

Cursores  ;  the,  birds  in- 

Cromwell, Oliver,  339  ; 

cluded  in,                          79 

Croesus,   a   King  in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


8" 

Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305 

M 
0) 

(4 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. D.                       xxxi 

Cuticle,  the,                          84 

Cyclopean  architecture,  185 

CO 

Cutis  vera,  tiie,                     84 

Cymri,  the,                          312 

ca 

1 

Ciirtius,  Marcus,                257 

Cynics,  the,                         106 

[ 

2 

Cuvier ;    his    clasbifica- 

Cynthia,                               247 

c3 

o 

tion  of  animals,             '  72 

Cynosarges,                        106 

It 

Cuyp,                                     175 

Cyprus,  248  ;  secured  to 

b 

Cycle  ;    a,   a   lunar ;    a 

England,                         431 

1 

metonic,                             91 

Cyrus,                          229,  234 

cS 

cl 

Cyclones,                               49 

Cythera,                              248 

o 

Cyclops,  the,                      245 

Czar,  — ina,  — ovitch,       397 

4) 

to 

a 

D. 

0) 

i 

Da  Costa,                           135 

method     of     writing 

^ 

A 

2 

Daguerre,  M.,                     178 

previous  to  1752,             87 

% 

ctf 

D'Alembert,                       129 

D'Aubigny,  J.  H.  M.,       130 

^ 

^ 

•a 
a 

Dalton,  John,                      167 

Dauphin,  the  ;  origin  of,  392 

oT 

vi 

Damiens,                             393 

David,  King  of  Israel,      228 

> 

to 

Damp     appearance     of 

,  the  painter,               174 

^ 

S 

walls  and  paved  pas- 

 I.  of  Scotland  ;  na- 

^ 

sages    of     buildings. 

ture  of  his  reign,           319 

0^ 

how  caused,                     44 

II.  of  Scotland,         323 

y, 
C5 

u 

Daniel,                                 229 

Davy,  Sir  Humphrey,       167 

v.* 

5 

Daniel  the  poet,                 142 

Day,  an  intercalary,  Z6  ; 

ctf 

*« 

Danish     invasions      of 

New    Year's,    87  ;    a 

o 

England  ;  dynasty  in 

civil,  92;  how  divided, 

^ 

to 

England,     314  ;     de- 

92 ;  a  sidereal,  92  ;  a 

oT 

1 

scents  on  Ireland,          315 

solar,   92  ;  the,  when 

.5J 
2 

H 

Danish     and     German 

it  begins,                           92 

I 

rt 

War,                                  427 

Days  and  nights,  differ- 

fl 

Dante,                                  122 

ence  in  the  length  of, 

•s 

01 

a 

Danton,                       407,  409 

how  caused,       -               18 

S 

S3 

Danube,  the  river,               26 

Days  of  the  week,  origin 

'C 

O 

Darien,  Isthmus  of,            31 

of  the  English  names 

^ 

expedition,                350 

of  the,  89  ;  names  of 

to 

V 

Darius  I.,                    234,  235 

the,  employed  in  the 

3 
0 

cj 

II.,                                235 

records  of  Parliament,  89 

6 

Dark  Ages,  the,                 287 

Days  in  a  decade  of  the 

1 

Darnley,  Lord,          331,  332 

French  revolutionary 

« 

Dates,   example  of   the 

calendar,  names  of  the,  90 

i 

CO 

Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,   1769;    Died,   1821. —  See  page  411. 


xxxii                      ANALYTICAL    INDEX.         D. 

D.  D.,                                  218 

De  Ruyter, 

34X 

Deborah,                              228 

Derwentwater,  Earl  of, 

356 

Decades  of  the  French 

Descartes, 

126 

revolutionary    calen- 

Despot, a. 

220 

dar  ;     names    of    the 

Dettingcn,  battle  of, 

357 

days  in  the,                       90 

Deucalion, 

242 

Decadi,  the  day,                   90 

De     Vyck    or     Wyck, 

Decameron,  the                  123 

Henry, 

93 

Decandolle,                         129 

De  Witt, 

341 

December,  origin  of  the 

Dew, 

44 

name,                                   86 

Dey  of  Algiers, 

425 

Deciduous  trees,                  69 

Dialect,  a, 

94 

Decimal    system   legal- 

Diana, 

247 

ized  in  France,               412 

Diaz,  Bartholomew  de, 

306 

Decker,  Thomas,                144 

Dickens,  Charles, 

166 

Declaration  of  rights,       348 

Dictator,  a, 

221 

Defender  of  the  Faith,     328 

Dictators,  the. 

268 

Defoe,  Daniel,                    149 

Diderot,                       129, 

406 

Degree,  a  geographical, 

Dido, 

253 

how  divided,                     24 

Dies  Irse,  the, 

191 

Degrees  in  a  university,  218 

Dies  Jovis, 

89 

De  Groot,                           135 

Luna, 

89 

Delenda  est  Carthago,     270 

Martis, 

89 

Delhi,  the  capital  of  In- 

 Mercurii, 

89 

dia,                                   304 

. Saturnii, 

89 

Delphi,  the  oracles  of,     254 

Solis, 

89 

Delphian  classics,  the,     10 1 

Veneris, 

89 

Del  Principe,                    123 

Diet  of  Spires, 

382 

Delta,  a,                                35 

of  Worms, 

382 

Demagogue,  a,                  221 

Dieu  et  mon  Droit, 

324 

Demand    and     supply. 

Digitigrade  quadrupeds 

,    74 

law  of,                             214 

Dijon, 

375 

j    Demeter,                             247 

Diocletian, 

283' 

Democratic         govern- 

Diodorus Siculus, 

109 

ment,                       220,  221 

Diogenes, 

106 

Democritus,               107,  262 

Diomedes, 

243 

Demosthenes,                     262 

Dionysius    of    Halicar- 

Denham,  Sir  John,            145 

nassus, 

109 

Denmark,  27  ;  early  his- 

Diplomatist, a. 

206 

tory,  capital  of,                28 

Diptera,  the. 

77 

De  Quincey,  Thomas,      167 

Directory,  the  French, 

De  Retz,  Cardinal,           388 

of  public  worship. 

De  Rosny,                          384 

the  Westminster, 

340 

"  Order  of  the  Garter  "  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


V 

(4 

The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8 

8. 

c4 

1 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. D.                    xxxiii 

a, 

V 

Discord,   throwing  the 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,           33c 

V 

apple  of, 

252 

Drama,      the      original 

1 

Discordia, 

252 

form  of,    100 ;  in  the 

1 

M 

2 

Discount, 

214 

middle  ages,                   120 

n 
^ 

M 

Disintegration,      mean- 

Dramatic poetry,                 99 

.s 

ing  of. 

34 

Drayton,                               142 

0 

D 

Disraeli,  Benjamin, 

166 

Dress  of  the  Romans,      282 

<o 

IS 

Dissenters, 

201 

Drogheda,  statute  of,       326 

Xi. 

w 

Distances,how  reckoned 

Druid,    origin    of     the 

u^ 

0) 

by  the  Romans, 

280 

term,                                 308 

0 

^ 

Divan,  the. 

117 

Druids,  the,                         308 

CO 

ctf 

Divarication      of     lan- 

Druidic temples,                208 

0 

TS 

guages. 

94 

Drummond,  William,       141 

0 

2; 

s 

Divina  Commedia,  the. 

122 

Drury  Lane,  origin  of,     342 

Divinity,  the  faculty  of, 

216 

Dryads,                                 252 

1 

n 

Dodsley,  Robert, 

154 

Dryden,John,                     146 

0 

5S 

Dog-days, 

14 

Dry-rot  in  timber,               67 

OS 

^ 

Dog-star,  ancient  belief 

Dublin,                                  29 

•. 

respecting  the. 

14 

Duchy  of  Cornwall,  the,  205 

0) 

to 

c 

Dog  tribe. 

81 

of  Lancaster,             205 

% 

rt 
v 

Doge  of  Venice,  the, 

421 

Palatine,  a,                 205 

« 

§ 

Dollar,  the  pillar, 

212 

Dudevant,  Madame,         130 

0 

Hi/ 

Dolphin,  the. 

81 

Dumouriez,                407,  410 

a 

U-4 

o 

Domaines  Nationaux, 

410 

Dunbar,  battle  of,             341 

t 

!S 

Domenichino, 

172 

,  William,                    140 

< 

Domesticated  animals. 

74 

Duncan  of  Scotland,         318 

Domitian, 

275 

Dundee,                                29 

Domremy,  village  of, 

374 

,  Viscount,                  347 

a 

Donkey  and  well, 

63 

Dunkirk        sold        by 

S 

Donne,  the  poet, 

142 

Charles  II.,                     390 

u 
^ 

vJ 

Don  Quixote, 

124 

Duns  Scotus,                      116 

09 
V 

Doomsday  Book, 

317 

Duodi,  the  day;                    90 

< 

B 

Doric  Greeks, 

257 

Durer,  Alben, '                 173 

V 

B 
o 

Doris, 

257 

Dutch,  the,                         396 

c 

Douglas,  Gavin, 

140 

literature,    ,               134 

s 

Douw,  Gerard, 

175 

school  of  painting, 

hH 

i 

Downs, 

35 

174  ;       distinguished 

U 

Xi 

Draco,                         257, 

258 

painters  of  the,               175 

o 

Draconian  laws, 

258 

Dutch  writers,           134,  135 

?« 

< 

0 

c 
►2, 

Dragon,  a 

245 

Dyce,  W.,                           178 

00 
< 

1 

1 

rhe    Earth's      Surface     is      200,000,000      Square    Miles.— See    page   23. 

V 

The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181 

4) 

xxxiv                     AATAZ  YTICAL     INDEX, ^E. 

1 
(1) 

E. 

V 

W 

1. 

Ealdorman,                        315 

Eclipse   of    the    moon, 

0 

o 

Ears  of  Midas  the,           254 

how   caused  ;    of  the 

a 

2 

M 

Earth,  a  planet,  12  ;  its 

sun,  how  caused,              22 

'2 

distance     from      the 

Ecliptic  ;    how  situated 

< 

sun  ;    its    shape ;     its 

with   respect    to    the 

B 

c4 

rt 

size  ;  its  satellites,  15  ; 

Equator,                            18 

CO 

•tJ 

how    known     to     be 

Eddas,  the,                          116 

4) 

^ 
1 

round,    16  ;    its    mo- 

Edgar Atheling,                 3 1 6 

^ 

tions  ;  its  annual  rev- 

Edgar of  Scotland,           319 

c 

olutions  ;  its  diurnal 

Edgehill,  battle  of,           34c 

EI3 

motion,  17  ;  its  orbit; 

Edict   of   Nantes,  385  ; 

i 

its  axis  ;    its  posture 

revocation  of,                 389 

00 

in  its  revolutions,  18  ; 

Edinburgh,  29  ;  patron 

0 

•o 

extent  of  its  surface, 

saint  of,                            121 

2 

s 

23  ;  origin  of  its  di- 

 Parliament  House,  334 

vision  into  countries, 

Review,                      162 

0 

27  ;  its  crust,  32  ;  its 

Edward  I.  of  England,    322 

1 

centre   in   a   state   of 

323 

ci 

V 

heat,  T^^  ;  its  magnetic 

II.  of  England,         323 

a 

poles,   55  ;  its  attrac- 

 III.  of  England,       323 

u 
^ 

g 

tion,   56,  57  ;    bodies 

IV.  of  England,       326 

0 

0) 

.a 

beyond  the  ;  cause  of 

V.  of  England,         326 

fi 

the  difference   of,           57 

VI.  of  England,       329 

0 

(See  World.) 

Confessor,  the,          316 

a 
0 

J3 

Earthquakes,  cause  of,       38 

Black  Prince,  the,    324 

^ 

^ 

Earthquake  at  Lisbon,     426 

Eels,   exploded    notion 

1 

East,  the,                               30 

concerning  their  pro- 

East   India    Company, 

duction,                             74 

ct 

CO 

5 

termination   of    their 

Egbert,                                314 

G 

1 

government,                   371 

Egmont,  Count,                 395 

5 

(0 

Easter,  rule  for  deter- 

Egypt, 30,  235  ;  history 

0 

mining  it  in  any  par- 

of, begins  236  ;  chief 

S 

M 

ticular  year,                      92 

cities  of  ;  religion  of. 

t 

o 

Eber,                                    224 

237,  238  ;  the  arts  in; 

4J 

Eboracum,                          309 

loses     its     independ- 

G 

0) 

V 

Ecclesiastical     govern- 

ence,  288;  under  the 

s 

9i 

ment,                               222 

Ptolemies,    240 ;     in- 

CO 

Echo  ;  where  most  com- 

vaded by  the  French,  41a 

H 

mon,                                  50 

Egyptian  bondage,            225 

2 
0 

1 

niiials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 

"8 

CIS 

Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was    the 

Food    of  the   Grods See  page   248 

4) 
bO 

ANALYTICAL 

INDEX. E.                      XXXV 

V 

Egyptian  year,  the, 

85 

Endogenous  trees  ;  ex- 

4) 

CO 

1 

Egyptians,                  224, 

230 

amples  of,                         69 

w 

1 

to 

Eleanor,  Queen  of  Eng- 

Enghein, Duke  d',             413 

1, 

0 

Si 

3 

land, 

322 

Engineering,                      218 

c 

Eleanor's  crosses. 

322 

Engineers,     two     cele- 

ii 

Eleatic  school,  the, 

107 

brated  modern  civil,     218 

^ 

Electors  of  Germany, 

414 

England,  28,  310  ;  chief 

w) 

Electric  battery. 

^Z 

cathedral          towns  ; 

0 

u 

clock, 

55 

chief   manufacturing 

Vt 

•S 

telegraph, 

55 

towns ;    chief     naval 

\ 

1 

Electricity  ;   good  con- 

stations ;     university 

I 

ductors  of ;  bad  con- 

towns ;  principal  sea- 

u 

1 

ductors  of;  kinds  of; 

ports,  28  ;  Church   of 

5 

1 

positive  ;       negative. 

(see  Church);  patron 

bo 

>s 

53  ;  flashes,  how  pro- 

saint of,  121  ;    origin 

.S 

1 

duced  ;   how   demon- 

of the  word,  310,  312; 

to 

o 
o 

strated  in  nature. 

54 

origin  of  the  kingdom 

4) 
CO 
0) 

lO 

Electrifying  machine,  53,  54 

of,  314;  under  Saxons 

0 

ts 
SL 

Elementary  substances. 

and  Danes,  314,  315; 

2 

their  number;  their  na- 

under Normans,  316  ; 

CO 

^ 

ture;  their  compounds. 

border  of  it  and  Scot- 

J 

how   discovered. 

40 

land  settled,  319;  Ire- 

•8 

»n 

Elements,  the  four. 

39 

land  attached  to,  320; 

M 

Elevation-plan,  an. 

190 

Wales     added,     332; 

s 

a 

Elgin  Marbles,  the, 

180 

under   the   Plantage- 

tn 

c" 

Eliot,  George, 

166 

nets,  321  to  325  ;  un- 

1 

Elis,                             243, 

256 

der  the  Tudors,  326  ; 

CO 

Elixir  Vitae, 

117 

the   Reformation    in. 

HJ 

Elizabeth,     Queen     of 

328;      under     Henry 

g 

rt 

England, 

329 

VIII.,   329  ;  Scotland 

tC 

of  England,  prin- 

united    to ;     at    .the 

M 

u 

Wi 

cess. 

335 

Union,  state  of,             353 

00 

§ 

Elizabethan  architecture 

,188 

English  expelled  from 

'3 

Elliot,  Miss, 

i6o 

France,                            374 

Q 

Elliot,  Sir  Gilbert, 

152 

English   language,.  94  ; 

u 

^ 
^ 

u 

Elves, 

119 

nature  of  ;  number  of 

Elysian  Fields, 

282 

words  in  the  ;  words 

Emerson,  Ralph  W., 

169 

used     in    literature  ; 

■M 

0 

Empedocles, 

262 

words  used  in  speak- 

PQ 

1 

Emperor,  an. 

220 

ing  the,                           136 

cd 

ctf 

Encyclop3edia,first  Eng- 

English language,  how 

o 

lish, 

154 

affected  by  the  Nor- 

0 
0 

1 

Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroye 

d    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230 

1 

rhe  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    i2.-See  page   242. 

i 

PL, 

xxxvi                    AJVAL  YTICAL     INDEX. E. 

man      Conquest ;    of 

Entozoa,  the,                         76 

V 
0) 

what  composed,             317 

Eorls,  Anglo-Saxon,         315 

1. 

1 

English    law  ;      nature 

Eos,                                      249 

ft) 
0 

of  ;  courts,                       203 

Epic  poetry  ;  the  heroic 

"S 

M 

English          literature  ; 

epic,                                   99 

> 

c 

when  it   commences, 

Epictetus,                            113 

0 

-o 

137  ;  in  the  reign  of 

Epicurus,                     107, 262 

0" 

s 

Elizabeth,  change  in, 

Epicureans,                         107 

I 

141  ;      condition     of, 

Epidermis,  the,                     84 

0 

CO 

from    1649    to    1689, 

Equator,  the,                         18 

s 

M 

145  ;     from     1689    to 

Equinoctial  points,              18 

s 

rt 

1727,     148;     1727    to 

Equinoxes,                            18 

s 

1760,    151  ;     1760    to 

Equites,                                276 

6 

& 

1800,     154;     of     the 

Equity,                                  203 

> 

nineteenth  century,       162 

courts  in  England,  203 

c 

English  national  anthem,  192 

Era,  an;  the   Christian; 

c 

English       newspapers, 

the  Hebrew;  Roman; 

O 

commencement  of,        145 

Greek;  Mohammedan,  85 

m 

English  painters  of  the 

Erasmus  Desiderius,         134 

to 

present  day,                     176 

Erastianism,                        201 

Q 

V4 

^ 

English         Parliament 

Erato,                                   251 

to 

constituted,                     321 

Erie,  lake,                             26 

0 

1) 

school  of  painting, 

Eris,                                      252 

^ 

rise    of    the  ;    distin- 

Esau,                                   225 

•d 

guished    painters    of 

Esculent  plants,                  67 

> 

.§ 

the,                           175,  176 

Esquiline  Hill,           274,  277 

•^ 

English  war-cry  in  the 

Esquire,  the  distinction 

if 

a> 

Middle  Ages,                  122 

of,                                     199 

0) 

a 

English  writers,   noted 

Essayists,  British,              149 

2: 

<«-i 

for  the  profuse  use  of 

Essenes,  the,                         96 

(U 

o 

words  from  the  Latin, 

Estates,  Convention  of,    223 

.2 

c 

0) 

136  ;  early,  137  ;  from 

of  the  Realm,           222 

u 
C 

!S 

1553    to    1649,     141- 

Etats-Generaux,       first 

"i 

S 

145  ;     from    1649    to 

assembled,                      373 

s 

&< 

1689,    145-148  ;  from 

Etching,                              184 

rt 

4-> 
2 

1689  to  1727,  148-151  ; 

Ethics,                                  102 

CO 

V4 

from    1727    to    1760, 

Ethnology  defined,             82 

to 

CO 

151-154;    from     1760 

Etna,  Mount,               37,  247 

1 

o 

to  1800,    154-162  ;    of 

Etruria,                                267 

to 

the   19th  century,  162-168 

Etruscan  ware,                   267 

0 

ia 

Engravings,                        184 

Ettrick  Shepherd,  the,      165 

to 

Entablature  of  a  build- 

Et tu,  Brute,                       272 

I 

o 

ing,                                   190 

Etymology,                           93 

0) 

The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407 

• 

Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 


F. 


xxxvn 


257 
108 


Euboea, 

Euclid, 

Euphrates,  the  river,  224,  232 

Euphrosyne,  251 

Euphuism,  origin  of  the 

term,  142 

Euripides,  103,  262 

Europa,  255 

Europe,     23;    principal 
rivers,    26;    principal 
countries,  27;  highest 
mountains,  28;  popu- 
lation, 32;  volcanoes, 
37 ;  origin  of  the  name,  255 
Europe,  five  great  pow- 
ers of,  426 
Europe,  political  chan- 
ges effected  by  Berlin  431 
Congress, 
Euryale,  253 


by    what 
examples 


examples 
shed 


Eurydice, 
Eusebius, 
Euterpe, 
Evans,  Miss, 
Evaporation, 

promoted ; 

of, 
Evelyn,  John, 
Evergreens  ; 

of ;    how    they 

their  leaves, 
Exarch  of  Ravenna, 
Exchange,  bills  of  ;  rate 

of  ;  the  Stock, 
Exequator  of  a  consul. 
Exogenous    trees  ;    ex- 
amples of. 
Exotic   plants ;  largely 

used  in  Great  Britain, 
Ezekiel, 


251 
115 
251 

166 


44 
146 


69 


213 

206 


69 

69 
229 


Fabian  policy, 

Fabius, 

Fableor,  a, 

Fabliaux, 

Faci  lis  descensus 
Averno, 

Faculty,  a  learned, 

Faculty  of  arts  ;  of  di- 
vinity ;  of  law  ;  of 
medicine, 

Faed,      Thomas,      the 
painter, 

Fahrenheit's  thermom- 
eter, 

Fairfax,  the  poet, 

Fairies, 

Falconer,  William, 


269 
269 
125 
125 

265 
216 


216 
177 

43 
142 
119 
155 


Falernian  wine, 
Falernus  Ager, 
Falls  of  Niagara, 
Fama  (fame), 
Family  system,  the, 
Farquhar, 
Fasces, 
Fates,  the. 
Father  of  history,' 

of  his  people, 

of  tragedy, 


Fathers  of  the  church, 

the. 
Fauns,  the, 
Fawkes,  Guy, 
Feathers,    tad    electric 

conductors, 


283 

283 

26 

252 
220 

150 
268 

250 
107 

375 
103 

115 

265 

334 
53 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


( 

V 

bfi 

Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian   Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C.— See  page  273. 

xxxviii                  ANALYTICAL    INDEX. F. 

V 

February,  origin  of  the 

Fishes,  nature  of,                78 

1 

name,                                 88 

Five   great    powers    of 

« 

Federal  Union,  a,              222 

Europe,                            426 

£ 

Felidae,  the,                          81 

Fixed  stars,                           13 

N 

Feltham,  Owen,                 144 

Flag  of  England  before 

o 

Felton,                                 336 

the  union  with  Scot- 

S' 

Fenelon,                                128 

land,                                 353 

.. 

Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria,  377 

Flag  of  Scotland  before 

? 

,  Duke  of  Orleans,    417 

the  union  with  Eng- 

1 

and  Isabella,              306 

land,                                 353 

Ferguson,  Dr.  Adam,       159 

Flag   of   Great  Britain 

1 

Fergusson,  Robert,           160 

after  the  Union,  353  ; 

g 

Ferns,                                     ^d 

after  the  union  with 

Ferrier,  Miss,                     166 

Ireland,                            367 

09 
4) 

Ferruginous  springs,         37 

Flag     of     the     United 

Festivals  of  the  French 

States,                             428 

X 

revolutionary    calen- 

Flamens,                            264 

V 

dar,                 '                    90 

Flanders    acquired    by 

Fetish,  a,                             119 

the     Duke     of    Bur- 

.2 

Fetishism,  where  preva- 

gundy,                            394 

lent,                                  119 

Flavel,  John,                      147 

Feudal  system,  295  ;  dis- 

Flaxman, John,                 182 

< 

advantages     of      the. 

Flemish  school  of  paint- 

.s 

296  ;  wars,  how  con- 

ing, noted  painters  of 

s 

ducted  under  the,          295 

the,                                   174 

*3 

Fibrous  plants,                    67 

Fletcher,  John,                  143 

Fichte,                                 134 

Flodden,  battle  of,            331 

o 

Fief,  a,                                  295 

Flora,                                  249 

Fief-holders,    examples 

Floreal,  the  month,             90 

of  large,                           295 

Florence,     28  ;     capital 

j5 
ftf 

Fielding,  Henry,               153 

of    Tuscany,    267  ;    a 

a 

Field   of  the   Cloth   of 

free  city,  296  ;  birth- 

S 

Gold,                               375 

place      of     Amerigo 

o 

Fifth-monarchy  men,       337 

Vespucci  ;  capital  of 

5 

Fine  arts,  the,                     169 

the     Florentine    Re- 

o 

Finis  Poloniae,                   400 

public,                             422 

M 
cd 

Finland     acquired     by 

Florentine  Republic,       422 

cu 

Russia,                            401 

school  of  painting, 

cd 

Fire-balls,                             57 

head  of  the,                    172 

Fire    of     London,    the 

Fly,  why  it  can  walk  on 

09 

Great,                               342 

the  ceiling,                        77 

> 

Firmament,      mearing 

Flying  insects,  legs  of,       78 

C 
0 

of  ;  color  of  the,              14 

Focus,  the,                           52 

The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815. — See   page    368. 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. F. 


xxxii 


Fogs,  what  they  are ; 
why  they  disappear 
in  fine  weather,  44  ; 
a  common  cause  of 
them  at  sea,  45 

Fontenelle,  128 

Fontenoy,  battle  of,         357 
Foote,  Samuel,  154 

Forces    sustaining    the 

planets,  16 

Fordoun,  John  of,  139 

Forest  laws,  317 

Fortuna  (fortune),  252 

Forum,  the  Roman,         278 
Fossils,  2>Z 

Fox,  Charles  James,         363 

,  George,  344 

France,  27  ;  capital  of, 
28  ;  patron  saint  of, 
121  ;  ancient  name, 
266  ;  origin  of,  289  ; 
first  so  called,  294 , 
modern,  how  consoli- 
dated, 374  ;  English 
expelled  from,  374 ; 
history  of  modern, 
374  to  376  ;  385  to 
393  ;  404  to  420  ;  the 
Revolution  in,  405  ; 
divided  into  depart- 
ments, 407  ;  monarchy 
abolished  in,  408  ;  a 
republic,  408  to  413  ; 
an  empire,  413 ;  a 
monarchy,  417  ;  a  re- 
public, 418,  419  ;  an 
empire,  419,  420 ; 
difference  of  govern- 
ment in  England 
and  ;  a  republic,  420 

(See       France       and 
French.) 
Francis  I.  of  France,        375 


Francis  II.  of 


,  Sir  Philip, 
de  Sales, 


France, 
332, 


376 

362 
126 

425 


Franco-Italian  War, 
Franco-Prussian     War, 

420,  430 
Frankfurt,  a  free  city,      296 


Franklin, 

Franklins, 
Franks, 
Frascati, 
Frederick  I. 


Benjamin 

169,  428,  429 

316 

284,  289 

282 

of  Prussia 


II.  of  Prussia, 
of  Saxony, 
Prince  of  Wales, 


death  of, 
—  the  Great, 

William 

Prussia, 
William 


I.  of 

II.  of 


402 

403 
382 

360 
403 

403 

403 


Prussia, 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  201 

296 

374 
220 
120 

215 
134 


cities, 

cities  of  France, 

Freedom,  Zt^^ 


Freemasons, 
Free-trade, 
Freiligrath, 

French  Academy  estab- 
lished, 387 
French  comedy,  the  cre- 
ator of,  127 
French  Directory,            411 

emigrants,  407 

invasion  of  Egypt,  412 

invasion  of  Ireland,  ^i^d 

literature,  125  ;  the 

Augustan  age  of,  126 

French  names  of  the 
days  of  the  week,  ori- 
gin of  the  89 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


Xl                           ANAL  YTICAL 

INDEX.-        F. 

French  Pi-otestants,  per- 

XIV., i26;of  theiSth 

secution  of  ;  settle  in 

century,      128  ;      19th 

Great  Britain,                390 

century,                             129 

French  Republic  estab- 

Fresco painting,                 178 

lished,                             408 

Freytag,                               134 

Republic,      the 

Friction,   cause   of ;    in 

second,                             418 

moving  bodies,  meth- 

 republican  calen- 

ods adopted  to  over- 

dar   instituted,    408  ; 

come,                                 59 

abolished,                       414 

Friday,    origin    of    the 

French    Revolution    of 

name,                                  89 

1789,  365.  405  ;    chief 

Frederick  shall,      siege 

causes  of  the,  405 ;  fate 

of,                                     398 

of  the  Church  at  the ; 

Friends,                                344 

number  that  perished 

Frieze,  a,                             190 

during  the,                       410 

Frigid    Zones,    why   so 

French    Revolution    of 

cold,                                    20 

July,  1830;  revolution 

Frimaire,  the  month,          90 

of  1848,417  ;  effect  of 

Frisians,                                394 

on    Continental    Eu- 

Frobisher,                          330 

rope,                                 425 

Frogs,  78  ;  early  condi- 

French     revolutionary 

tion  of,                               79 

calendar ;    names    of 

Froissart,                             125 

the  months  according 

Fronde,  members  of  the; 

to  ;  names  of  the  days 

origin  of  ;  wars  of,       388 

in  a  decade   of   the  ; 

Frondeur,                            388 

festivals  of  the ;    de- 

Frost, 42  ;  use  of,                45 

cades  of  the,  90  ;  how 

Froude,  J.  A.,                    166 

long  in  use,                       91 

Fructidor,                              90 

French  school  of  paint- 

Fruits, best   known    in 

ing,  leading  painters 

Great  Britain,                  69 

^  of  the,                               173 

Fruit  trees,  the  more  re- 

French tragedy,  the  cre- 

markable,                         69 

ator  of,                             127 

Fulcrum  of  a  lever,            62 

war,  cause  of  the 

Funds,  the,                          213 

great ;  effects  of  it  on 

Fungi,    edible ;  poison- 

England,                        368 

ous  ;        where      they 

French     writers,    sum- 

usually grow,                   66 

mary  of,  previous  to 

Fungous     plants      (see 

the    reign    of    Louis 

Fungi). 

XIV.,     125  ;     during 

Furies,  the,                         250 

the    reign    of    Louis 

Fusillades,                          409 

The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in   1588. — See   page  330. 


-      « 

s: 

The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long.— See    page    302 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX, G.                          xli 

.1 

a 

ctf 

G. 

(U 

1 

bo 

g 

Gainsborough,  the  paint- 

Genoa, a  free  city,  296  , 

S 

o 

er, 

176 

birth-place  of  Colum- 

u 

O 

•ri 

Galaxy,  the, 

14 

bus,                                  306 

A 

CIS 

Galba, 

275 

Genre  pictures,                  177 

bo 

Galen, 

114 

Gentiles,                              231 

.s 

Galileo, 

123 

Gentleman's  Magazine, 

3 
Q 

o 

Gall,  Dr., 

^zz 

the,                                   154 

cT 

Galland,  M., 

117 

Geography,      what     it 

CO 

0 

*g 

Gallery  pictures. 

177 

teaches,                              23 

Q 

Gallia, 

266 

Geology,    32  ;    not    an 

0 

CO 

Gallinaceous  birds. 

79 

ancient  science,                38 

u 

Gait,  John, 

166 

George   I.  of  England, 

xh 

Galvani, 

55>  124 

355  ;  death  of,                357 

0 

u 

Galvanic  battery,  a 

55 

II.    of     England, 

„ 

u 

r] 

Galvanism  ;    origin 

I    of 

357  ;  death  of,                360 

0 

H 

the  word. 

55,  124 

III.    of    England, 

CO 
CO 

2 

Gama,  Vasco  de, 

306 

360  ;  family   of,  368  ; 

2 
0 

•S 

Game  laws,  origin  ( 

3f,      317 

death  of,                          369 

Games,    Isthmian, 

Ne- 

IV.    of   England, 

0 

mean  ;  Olympic  ; 

Py- 

death  of,                          369 

9i 

s 

thian. 

250,  254 

Prince  of  Denmark,  35  2 

3 

CO 

Ganges,  the  river, 

30 

German    empire    abol- 

00 

"1 

Gardiner,  Colonel, 

358 

ished  ;  restored,             430 

0 

q 

Garibaldi, 

425 

language,  the,             94 

m 

Garrick,  David, 

160 

literature,          130; 

0 

! 

Garter,  order  of  the,  its 

general   character   of 

0) 

jj 

origin, 

122 

recent,                               134 

g 

^ 

Gaul,    266  ;   under 

the 

German  school  of  paint- 

0 

s 

ctf 

Franks, 

289 

ing,  leading  painters 

< 

Gauls  invade  Italy, 

266 

of  the,                              173 

(41 

u 

Gaunt,  John  of, 

325*  326 

German     writers,'    the 

0 

ex 

4> 

Gay,  John, 

150 

most  noted,                     131 

0 

0. 

Ge, 

245 

Germany,  27  ;  capital  of,  28 

rt 

2 

Gebir, 

118 

,  Electors  of,              414 

CO 

C 

3 

Gemini, 

20 

,  origin     of      petty 

ii 

General  Assembly, 

the,    200 

states  in,                           294 

§ 

'% 

Genesis, 

223 

Germinal,  the  month,         9c 

0 

Geneva, 

Z^Z 

Gerusalemme  Liberata,   123 

I 

.2 

U 

(U 

0  - 

1 

ll — 

Genghis  Khan, 

l^Z 

Geryon,                                243 

Q   - 

\^ichael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 

The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


o 


xlii 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 


Gessler,  378 

Geysers,  38 

Ghazels,  117 

Gheraerd,  134 

Ghibellines,  the,  305 

Ghiberto,  Lorenzo,  181 

Giant's  Causeway,  ^iTi 

Gibbon,  Edward,      136,  158 
Gibraltar,  taken  by  ;he 

English,  351 

Gideon,  228 

Gifford,  William,  161 

Gil  Bias,  128 

Giotto,  171 

Girondists,  407 

Glacial  action,  46 

Glaciers  ;  origin  of  the 

word,  46 

Gladiators,  Roman,  279,  280 
Glasgow,  29 

Glass,    a    bad    electric 
conductor ;    its    elec- 
tric power,  53 
Glass-making,                      41 
Glencoe,  massacre  of,      349 
Glendower,  Owen,            325 
Globe,  the  (see  Earth). 
Gloucester,  28 
Gnomes,                             119 
Gnostics,  the,                       96 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon,       298 
Gods,    Olympic,     246 ; 
Roman      names     of. 


Goldsmith,  Oliver, 

Goliath, 

Good   Hope,   Cape   of, 

passage  discovered, 
Gordian-knot,   the  ;    to 

cut  the, 
Gordius, 

Gordon,  Lord  George, 
Riots, 


Gorgon  s,  the, 
Gospel,  meaning  of, 
Gothic  architecture, 
cathedral,  the 


246,       247 


Greek 


names  of,  247  ;  tute- 
lary, 

Goethe,  132, 

Gold ;  often  found  in 
quartz,  35  ;  alloyed. 

Golden  Age,  the. 

Golden  number,  the, 
why  so  called ;  how 
to  find  the, 


254 
134 

39 
242 


91 


parts  of  a, 

Goths,  the, 

Government,  aristocra- 
tic ;  democratic  ; 
forms  of ;  monarchi- 
cal ;  patriarchal,  220 ; 
ecclesiastical,  222  ; 
municipal,  223  ;  dif- 
ference of  in  France 
and  England, 

Gower,  John, 

Gracchi,  the, 

Graces,  the, 

Graecas  calendas,  ad, 

Graecia, 

Grahame,  Rev.  James, 

Grains, 

Grallatores,  the ;  ex- 
amples of. 

Grandson,  battle  of, 

Great  Britain,  first  in- 
troduced, 
(See  Britain,  Great.) 

Granite, 

Grasses  ;  artificial, 

Grasshoppers, 

Gravel, 

Gravitation  (see  Attrac- 
tion of  Gravitation). 

Gray,  Thomas, 


154 
228 

306 

255 
255 
36^; 
364 
253 
97 
187 

188 
284 


419 

137 
270 

251 

89 

241 

165 
67 

79 
379 

334 

32 

77 
34 


153 


Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Captain 


Humboldt,  the   Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133, 


fe 


AxVALYTICAL    INDEX.- 


Great  Bear,  the  constel- 
lation, 

Britain  (see  Brit- 
ain, Great). 

Greatest  happiness  of 
the  greatest  number, 
author  of  the  phrase, 

Greece,  27,  241;  origin 
of  name,  241  ;  capital 
of,  28  ;  period  dis- 
tinguished for  philos- 
ophy and  literature 
in  ;  the  seven  wise 
men  of,  102  ;  chief 
States  of  ;  credible 
history  of ;  govern- 
ment of,  256  ;  period 
of  greatest  prosperity, 
259  ;  subject  to  Mac- 
edon  ;  under  the 
Romans,  260,  261  ; 
celebrated  writers  of ; 
philosophers  of,  262  ; 
modern  society,  how 
benefited  by,  261  ; 
under  the  Turks  ;  in- 
dependence of, 

Greece  and  Rome,  na- 
ture of  the  intercourse 
between, 

Greek  architect,  the 
most  noted, 

Greek  architecture,  ori- 
gin of  ;  styles  of  ; 
period  of, 

Greek  calends,  at  the, 

' church, 

era,  the, 

language,  the, 

literature, 

mythology, 

painters,  the  most 

renowned. 


^3 


163 


424 

281 
185 

186 

89 

290 

85 

94 

102 

241 

170 


Greek  oracles, 

rebellion, 

sculpture,  the 


xliii 

253 
424 


su- 
periority of,  to  what 
ascribed  ;  when  it  at- 
tained perfection, 

Greek  sculptures,  cele- 
brated, 180, 

year,  the, 

Greeks,  education  of 
the, 

Greenock, 

Gregarious  animals, 

Gregorian  calendar,  the, 


chant,  the, 
Gregory  I., 

the  Great, 


Grenada, 

Grenville,  Mr., 

Greuze, 

Grimm,  the  brothers, 

Groat,  a, 

Grote,  George, 

Grotius,  Hugo,  135, 

Ground-plan,  a, 

Grub  street  writers, 

Guarini, 

Guelfs,  the, 

Guelph, 

Guiana, 

Guicciardini, 

Guido  Reni, 

Guilds, 

Guinea  in  money,  ori- 
gin of  the  word. 

Guise,  Dukes  of, 

Guizot, 

Gulf,  a. 

Gulf  Stream,  the. 

Gunpowder  invented  ; 
first  used  by  the  Eng- 
lish, 

Gunpowder  Plot,  the. 


179 

181 
85 

287 
29 

73 
Z6 
190,  297 

296 
296 

305 
361 

174 
134 
212 
166 
201 
190 
148 
123 
305 
355 
31 
123 
172 
296 

212 
376 
130 

23 

27 


300 
334 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle, — See  page  13. 


upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65. 


n 


xliv 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 


-H. 


Gustavus  Adolphus,  385,  397  I  Gutenberg,  John, 
Vasa,  397  I  Gypsies,  the, 


305 
304 


H. 


Habeas  Corpus  Act, 

Hades, 

Hadrian,    275  ;  country 

residence  of, 
Hafiz, 

Hail,  what  it  is. 
Hale,  Sir  Matthew, 
Hall,  Sir  Joseph, 

,  Mrs.  S.  C, 

Flam, 

Hamadryads, 
Hamburg,  296, 

Hamilton,  Alexander, 

,  Sir  William, 

.  William. 


Hamlet,  Prince  of  Den- 
mark, 

Hammer  of  the  ScotS; 
the, 

Hampden,  John, 

Handel, 

Hannibal, 

Hanover,  a  principality 
of  the  British  sover- 
eigns, 355  ;  lost  to 
Britain,  370  ;  house 
of, 

Hanse  Towns,  the, 

Hapsburg,  castle  of, 
dynasty  of,  376  ; 
house  of,  380 ;  ex- 
piry of  the  male  line 
of  the  house  of, 

Hardicanute, 

Hargrave,  James, 


343 
246 

281^ 
117 

45 
147 
142 
166 
225 
252 
427 
428 
161 
152 

401 

322 

339 
191 
269 


355 
427 


403 
314 
365 


Harleian  Collection,  the,  168 
Harlequin,  origin  of,  114 
Harley,  Robert,  Earl  of 


Oxford, 
Harold,  the  Dane, 

,  the  Saxon, 

Haroun  al  Raschid, 
Harpies,  the, 
Harvey,  George, 
Hastings,  battle  of, 
-,  Warren, 


Hawkins,  Sir  John, 

Haw^thorne,  Nathaniel, 

Haydn, 

Hazlitt,  William, 

Heat,  latent ;  how  pro- 
duced, 42  ;  radiation 
of ;  radiation  of  af- 
fected by  color ;  ab- 
sorption of  depend- 
ing on  color  ;  good 
conductors  of,  43  ;  in 
ice, 

Heathens, 

Hebe, 

Hebrew  era,  the, 

judges, 

language,  the 

literature,  the  best 


168 

314 
316 
T17 
250 
177 
316 
364,  271 


169 
191 
165 


45 

84 

248 

85 
228 

94 


95 


specimens  of  ancient, 
Hebrew  monarchy  com- 
menced, 228;  divided,  228 
Hebrew  musical  instru- 
ments, 
prophets. 


190 
229 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


bo 

The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to 

the    Height    of   45    Miles.- 

-See  page  45 

^ 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. H. 

xlv 

V 

Hebrew  Sabbath,  origin 

Henry  II.  of  France,        376 

(U 

1 

of,  89;  when  begun, 

90 

III.  of  France 

385 

1 

Hebrews     (see     Israel, 

IV.  of  France 

,  the 

1 

Q 

and  Jews),               223, 

224 

Great, 

385 

Hebrides,  the. 

29 

Heptarchy,  the, 

z-^i 

Hecate, 

250 

Hephoestus, 

247 

W4 

Hecla,  Mount, 

37 

Hera, 

247 

_c 

^ 

Heeren, 

134 

Heracleidae, 

243 

to" 

Q 

Hegel, 

134 

Heracles, 

243 

3 

Hegira,  the,  or  Hejira,  85 

,292 

Heraldry, 

209 

> 

3 

ffi 

Heidelberg, 

384 

Heralds, 

299 

(0 
0> 

Heine, 

134 

Herbaceous  plants, 

dZ 

> 

t 

Helen, 

243 

Herbert, 

178 

§ 

2 

Helena, 

284 

Herculaneum, 

281,  282 

0 

Q* 

Helicon,  Mount, 

253 

Hercules,  the  labors  of,  242 

1 

S 

Heliopolis, 

235 

,  Pillars  of, 

243 

1 

Helios,  statue  of, 

261 

Herder, 

134 

1 

^ 

Hellas, 

241 

Heritable    jurisdictions 

t«-l 

o 

Hellenes,  the. 

241 

in  Scotland  abolished,  359 

0 

O 

Helots, 

257 

Hermann, 

134 

§ 

0) 

Helvetia, 

377 

Hermes, 

247 

"S, 

O 

Helvetian  republic, 

425 

Hero, 

255 

2 

O 

Helvetius, 

129 

Herod, 

230 

o 

Hemans,  Mrs., 

165 

Herodotus, 

107,  262 

*g) 

Hemispheres, 

24 

Hero-worship, 

241 

>» 

0^ 

Hengist, 

311 

Her  rick,  Robert, 

143 

^ 

Henry,  Matthew, 

147 

Herschel,  Sir  John, 

167 

rt 

,  Patrick, 

428 

,  Sir  William, 

162 

a 

"2 

tn 

Henry  I.  of  England, 

319 

Hesiod,                102, 

241,  262 

1 

> 

II.  of  England, 

320 

Hesperides,  gardens  of 

9> 

Q 

III.  of  England, 

321 

the. 

243 

0) 

> 

o" 

IV.  of  England, 

325 

Hestia, 

247 

0 

»o 

V.  of  England, 

325 

Heylin,  Peter, 

144 

t 

G 

VI.  of  England, 

325 

Hibernia, 

Z^9 

I 

rt 

VII.    of    England, 

Hieroglyphics, 

237 

G 

u 
u 

ii 

326  ;  character  of. 

327 

Hill,  Aventine, 

277 

B 

3 

s 

Henry   VIII.    of    Eng- 

 ,  Coelian, 

277 

est 

c4 

land  ;  wives  of,  327  ; 

,  Capitoline, 

266,  277 

"3 

c 

children  of,   328  ;  his 

,  Esquiline, 

274,  277 

u 

o 

quarrel     with     the 

fort,  British, 

209 

j£ 

m 

Pope  ;  Supreme  head 

,  Mars, 

258 

•d 

0) 

of   the  Church,   328; 

of  Ares, 

258 

§ 

a 

death  of, 

329 

,  Palatine, 

263,  277 

\ 
a 

1 

rhe  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728.— 

See  page  154. 

The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


xlvi 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX, H. 


46 
46 

24 


Hill,  Pincian,  277 

,  Quirinal,  277 

,  Viminal,  277 

Hills,    24  ;     why    they 

cause  clouds, 
Hilly  countries,  why  the 

most  rainy, 
Himalaya      mountains, 

the, 
Hindostani      language, 

the,  94 

Hindus,  the,  303 

Hindu     sacred    books, 

ancient,  98 

Hindustan  ;       another 

name  for,  30 

Hippocrates,  104,  262 

• ,  the  Roman,  113 

Historical  painting,  170 
History,  the  father  of,  107 
,     ancient ;     civil  ; 

medieval  ;     modern  ; 

profane  ;  sacred,  219,  224 
Hoadly,  Dr.  Benjamin,  151 
Hoar  frost,  44 

Hobbes,  Thomas,  144 

Hobbima,  175 

Hoffman,  134 

H  ogarth,  the  French,        1 74 

,  William,  175 

Hogg,  James,  165 

Holbein,  173 

Holcroft,  Thomas,  156 

Holland,  27  ;  capital  of,     28 

,  Lord,  396 

Holstein  and  Schleswig, 

401  ;  war  respecting,  427 
Holy  Alliance,  the,  416 

Office,  the,  394 

orders,  200 

Roman     Empire 

abolished,  414 

Homer,  102,  241,  262 


112. 


Honi    soit    qui   mal 
pense, 

Honorius, 

Hood,  Thomas, 

Hooft, 

Hook,  Theodore, 

Hooker,  Richard, 

Horace, 

Horn,  Count, 

Horner,  Francis, 

Horology  defined, 

Horsa, 

Horsley,  Dr.  Samuel, 

Hoshea, 

Hot  springs. 

Hotspur,  Harry, 

Hours,  the,  how  desig- 
nated. 

House  of  Bourbon, 

of  Brunswick, 

of  Commons,  the, 

194  ;  number  of  mem- 
bers of  the,  196 ; 
Speaker  of  the, 

House  of  Hanover, 

of  Hapsburg,  376, 

380  ;    expiry    of    the 


122 

288 
165 

166 

143 

287 

395 
162 

311 

158 

228 

36 

325 

93 
385 
355 


197 
355 


male  line  of  the. 
House  of  Lords,  num 

ber  of  members  of  the,  197 
Houses  of  Parliament, 

194-198  ;  chairman  in 

the. 
House  of  Valois, 
Houses    of    York     and 

Lancaster  ;  united, 
Howard,  Henry, 
Huber,  Therese, 
Hugo,  Victor, 

Huguenots,        381,  2,^(i^  389 
Hull,  28 

Human      society,     the 

foundation  of,  220 


403 


197 

385 

326 
138 
134 
130 


Croesus,   a   King  in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See  page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


^ 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX, 


xlvii 


Humber,  the  river, 

26 

Huron,  lake, 

26 

Humboldt,  Alexander, 

133 

Huss,  John, 

381 

,  Karl  Wilhelm, 

^ZZ 

Hussites, 

380 

Hume,  David, 

153 

Hutton,  James, 

162 

Hundred  Days,    Reign 

Huttonian  theory,  the. 

162 

of  the, 

415 

Huygens,   the   astrono- 

Hungary, early  inhabi- 

mer, 

93 

tants  of  ;  troubled  by 

Hybernating  animals. 

74 

the   Turks ;   becomes 

Hydatid,  the. 

76 

a  kingdom  ;  attached 

Hyde,  Edward, 

146 

10      Bohemia,      377  ; 

Hydraulics, 

59 

literature  of ;  use  of 

Hydrostatics, 

59 

the  Latin  language  in, 

135 

Hygiene, 

217 

Huns, 

284 

Hymen, 

248 

Hunt,  Leigh, 

165 

Hymenoptera,  the. 

77 

Hunter,  John, 

161 

Hymettus,  Mount, 

261 

I,  island  of, 

I 

Immortality  of  the  soul, 

84 

Ice,    43  ;  heat  in  ;  used 

Improvisatori, 

117 

as  glass  ;  of  sea-water 

Improvising, 

117 

not  salt  as  the  water. 

45 

Inchbald,  Mrs., 

156 

Icebergs  ;  whence  they 

Incitatus, 

275 

come  ;  means  of  dis 

Inclined  plane,  the,  61, 

covering      the      ap 

d-i^  ;  examples  of  the. 

63 

proach  of, 

46 

Independents,  the, 

337 

Iceland, 

23 

Index     Expurgatorius, 

Ich  Dien, 

324 

the, 

98 

Iconoclast, 

291 

India  ;     situation     of  ; 

Ida, 

248 

how   governed  ;    the 

Ideal  in  art,  the, 

179 

chief    cities    in, ,  30  ; 

Ides, 

89 

classical  language  of, 

Idolator,  an. 

231 

94  ;  law  in. 

204 

Idyll,  an. 

99 

India  Company,  East, 

371 

Ignatius  of  Loyola, 

391 

House, 

371 

Igneous  rocks, 

32 

in  the  middle  ages, 

303 

Illiad,  Homer's, 

102 

traffic   between    it 

Ilissus,  the  river, 

257 

and   Europe,   in    the 

Ilium, 

243 

middle  ages. 

306 

Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821.  —  See  page  411. 


xlviii 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 1. 


India,    first   voyage   to, 

by  the  Cape, 
Indian       corn,      where 

largely  used, 
Indian  Ocean, 

revolt, 

Indies,    West,   why    so 

called. 
Indigenous  plants, 
Indo  -  European 

guages,  the, 
Germanic 


Ian- 


lan- 


;   ap- 
how 


guages,  the, 

Inertia  of  bodies, 

Infusoria,  the,  74 
pearance  of  the 
they  propagate. 

Inorganic  bodies. 

Inquisition,  the, 

Insecta,  the, 

Insectivora,  the, 

Insects,  orders  of  ;  trans- 
formation ;  antennae 
of;  eyes  of,  77  ;  legs 
of  the  flying,  78  ;  spin- 
ning, 

Insessores,  the,  79  ;  ex- 
amples of. 

Instinct, 

Institutes,  Calvin's, 

Intercalary  day,  an. 

International  law  ;  au- 
thorities on, 

Inverness, 

lona, 

Ionic  Greeks, 

Iran, 

Ireland,  23;  its  lakes; 
its  rivers,  26  ;  its  gen- 
eral character  ;  its 
chief  towns,  29  ;  pa- 
tron saint,  121  ;  Ro- 
man  name    of,   309  ; 


306 

67 
.  23 
371 

306 
69 

94 


94 
60 


75 
55 
394 
76 
80 


78 

80 
82 

383 
Z6 

201 

29 

313 

257 
234 


ancient  state  of;  Chris- 
tianity introduced 
into,  311  ;  Danish 
descents  on,  315  ;  at- 
tached to  English 
monarchy,  320  ;  par- 
liament first  instituted 
in,  323;  the  Reforma- 
tion in  ;  made  a  king- 
dom, 329  ;  Rebellion 
of  1798  in  ;  French 
invasion  of;  united  to 
Great  Britain, 

Ireland,  W.  H.,  his  for- 
geries. 

Iris, 

Iron  Age,  the, 

,  cause  of  rust  in. 


Ironstone, 

Irving,  Washington, 

Isaac, 

Isaiah, 

Isis, 

Islam, 

Islands  ;  the  principal, 
23  ;  volcanic, 

Ismael,  storming  of, 

Israel,  tribes  of,  225  ; 
under  the  judges,  228; 
kingdom  of;  kingdom 
of,  terminated,  228;  in 
captivity ;  lost  ten 
tribes  of,  229  (See 
Hebrews  and  Jews). 

Israelites,  225  ;  form  of 
government  of  the 
(see  Israel), 

Isthmian  Games, 

Italian  literature,  when 
it  begins, 

painters,   two    of 


160 

249 

242 

42 

169 
225 
229 
238 
292 

37 
399 


the  noted  early, 
—  pottery, 


227 
254 

122 


173 
i8j 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult    Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


CO 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. ^J. 


xlix 


Italian  schools  of  paint- 
ing, the  three  greatest 
painters  of  the, 

Italian  sculptors,      i8i, 

writers,  summary 

of  the  chief,  122, 

Italy,  27;  capital  of,  28; 


171 

182 


123 


early  condition  of, 
262 ;  invaded  byGauls, 
266;  French  kingdom 
of,  423;  modern  king- 
dom of, 

(See  Rome,  Roman.) 
Ivan  I., 


426 
396 


Jacob,  sons  of, 
Jacobin  Club,  the, 
Jacobites,  the. 
Jacquerie, 

Jacques  Bonhomme, 
Jamaica,    2^^,    31  ;     ac- 
quired by  Britain, 


225 
407 

349 
302 
302 

342 


James  I.  of  Scotland,  139, 324 

II.  of  Scotland,         324 

III.  of  Scotland,        324 

IV.     of    Scotland, 

324,  ZZ"^ 

V.  of  Scotland,  140,  324 

VI.     of    Scotland, 

140  ;  family  of,  i^Z 

James  I.,  King  of  Great 
Britain,  334  ;  charac- 
ter of  ;  his  notions  of 
church  polity,  335  ; 
death  of,  336 

James  II.  of  England  ; 
family  of,  346;  leaves 
England,  347,  in  Ire- 
land ;  retires  to 
France,  348;  death  of,  352 
James,  G.  P.  R.,  166 

Jameson,  George,  176 

Janitor,  origin  of,  265 

Janizaries,  the,  424 


Jansen,  391 

Jan  Steen,  175 

Jansenist  controversy,      391 
January,    origin  of  the 

name,  88,  265 

James,  264 

Japan,  30 

Jarden,  Karl  du,  175 

Jardin  des   Plantes   es- 


tablished, 
Jasmin, 
Jason, 
Java, 

Jay,  John, 
Jefferson,  Thomas, 
Jeffrey,  Francis, 
Jena,  battle  of, 
Jenner,  Edward, 
Jephthah, 
Jeremiah, 
Jerome, 

of  Prague, 


Jerrold,  Douglas 
Jerusalem,  30  ;  taken  by 

Nebuchadnezzar,  229; 

taken     by     Pompey ; 

taken  by  Titus,  230  ; 

plundered    by   Titus, 

280;  submits  to  Omar, 


387 
129 

242 

23 
428 
428 
162 
414 
161 
228 
229 

115 
381 
166 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. ^J. 


298 


230 

228 


275 
266 


292  ;  Godfrey  Bouil- 
lon,    King   of  ;    sur- 
renders to  Saladin, 
Jerusalem,  temple  built, 

228  ;  destroyed, 

Jesse, 

Jesuits,    the,    391  ;  sup- 
pressed in  France,         393 

Jesus    Christ,   birth  of, 

230 ;  crucified, 
Jetliro, 
Jews ;    government   of, 

227  ;  in  captivity,  228, 

229  ;  under  the  Mac- 
cabees ;  under  the 
Romans ;     dispersed, 

230  ;  religion  of  the ; 
the  civilized  world, 
how   indebted  to  the, 

231  ;  condition  of,  in 
England,  in  12th  and 
13th  centuries, 

Joan  of  Arc, 

Joe  Miller, 

John,  King  of  England,  321 

of  Gaunt,  325,  326 

of  Gordoun,  139 

Johnson,    Dr.    Samuel, 

,   his   Taxation  no 

Tyranny,  ^t^T) 
Joint-stock      undertak- 
ings, 213 
Jones,  Inigo,  189 

,  Sir  William,  156 

Jonson,  Ben,  142 

Joseph,  225 

I.  of  Austria,  404 

Josephine,       411  ;  di- 
vorced, 4.14 


322 
374 
151 


232 

227 
246 


229 
230 
227 
228 


Josephus,  Flavius, 
Joshua, 
Jove, 

Judah,    227  ;    kingdom 
of,    228 ;    inhabitants 
of   the   kingdom    of, 
in  captivity, 
Judas  Maccabeus, 
Judea, 
Judges,  Hebrew, 

,    the  appointment 

of,  205 

Jugurtha,  270 

Jugurthine  War,  270 

Julian  the  Apostate,  284 

Julius  Caesar,   in  ;  his 

calendar,  Z(> 

Julian    Calendar  ;     de- 
fect of  the ;  abolished,  Z() 
Julus,  244 

July,     origin      of     the 

name,  ZZ 

June,     origin     of    the 

name,  88 

Junius,  362 

Juno,  246,  247 

Jupiter,  the  planet,  12  ; 
color    of,    13 ;   satel- 
lites of,  15 
Jupiter,                       246,  247 
Jurisprudence,                   201 
Jury,  a;   trial   by,    205, 

315  ;  the  grand,  206 

Jussieu,  Laurent  de,  67, 
129 ;     his     classifica- 
tion of  plants,  67 
Justinian;  Pandects  and 

Institutes  of,  288 

Justinian,  the  Code  of,     202 
Tutes.  the,  311 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


i 

s. 

4> 

A^mbrosia,   in    Mythology,  was   the   Food    of  the   Gods — See  page   248 

s,, 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. K,    L.                      li 

■ 

1 

K. 

CO 

1 

3 

Kaiser, 

394 

Kilmarnock,  Lord,           358 

w 

'2 

Kangaroo,  the, 

80 

Kit-cat  pictures,                 177 

:s 

Kant,  Immanuel, 

132 

Klopstock,                          132 

W) 

Kantian  philosophy, 

132 

Kneller,  Sir  Godfrey,       177 

0 

M 

Karamsin, 

135 

Knight,  Charles,                168 

^H 

C 

Karl  du  Jarden, 

17s 

Knights  of  Malta,             424 

u 

g 

w 

Katrine,  loch, 

29 

of  St.  John,       298,  424 

I 

C 
(« 

Keats,  John,             219, 

165 

Templar,                     298 

0 

iS 

Kemble,  John, 

160 

Knowledge,  Society  for 

A 

rt 

^ 

,  Sarah, 

160 

Diffusion  of  Useful,      168 

1-^ 

Kempis.  Thomas  £i,. 

116 

Knox,  John,                         140 

ho 

o 

Kenmure,  Viscount, 

356 

Koch,  Paul  de,                   130 

to 
w 

o 

Kenneth,  king  of  Scots 

318 

Koran,  the,                            98 

0) 

?> 

Keppler, 

131 

Korner,                                  134 

0 

n3 

Keppler's  Laws, 

131 

Kosciusko,                          400 

a 

Kilkenny,  statute  of. 

324 

Kotzebue,                           133 

to 

S 

Killarney,  lakes  of, 

26 

Kyles                                  310 

J 

4) 

in 

Killiecrankiv,  battle  of, 

347 

0 

M 

.s 
1 

L. 

W 

v 

(0 

c: 

J 

Labors  of  Hercules, 

242 

Lakes  of  North  Amer- 

8 

rt 

Labruyere, 

127 

ica,                                    2b 

0^ 

•d 

Lacedaemonians,  the, 

259 

Lamartine,                          130 

t>i 

Lachesis, 

250 

Lamb,  Charles,                  164 

3 

Lac  of  rupees,  a, 

213 

Lamennais,                         129 

c 

o 

Laconia, 

256 

Lancaster,  Duke  of,          325 

4-> 

£3 

•g 

Lactantius, 

115 

,  House  of,          326,  327 

8 

1 

J>adislaus, 

377 

,  the  Duchy  of,-           205 

>» 

^ 

Laertes, 

244 

Land,    extent    of    the ; 

V 

^ 

Lafayette, 

407 

how   divided,    23  ; 

3 

Lafontaine, 

127 

features  of  the,                 24 

La  Harpe, 

129 

Landscape  painting,         170 

c<i 

Lake  Avernus, 

265 

Landseers,  the,                   176 

(m 

Cx] 

Lake   school   of   poets. 

Lane,  Dr.  Edward,            117 

0 

4J 

O 

the. 

163 

Language?    in    the 

o 

0) 

J3 

A 

h 

H 

Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See   page    230 

00 

1) 
bo 

rhe  Labors  of  Hercules,  in    Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 

8 

CO 

S. 
g. 

lii                           ANALYTICAL     INDEX. L. 

0) 

world;  number  of,  93; 

Leap-year,    why   so 

0) 
4) 

M 

the  Semitic;  the  Indo- 

called;  how  to  know  a,    87 

1 

1 

Germanic  or  Indo- 

Learned  faculty,  a,            216 

0 

g 

European  ;  the   clas- 

Learning, medieval,         115 

(U 

M 

sical  ;    the     divarica- 

Le Brun,  Charles,     173,  392 

> 

G 

tion  of, 

94 

Lee,  Sophia    and   Har- 

<41 
0 

•d 

Laocoon, 

254 

riet,                                   157 

0* 

_« 

Lares,  the, 

264 

Leeds,                                    28 

I 

0 

Q 

Larva,  the, 

77 

Legion  of  Honor  insti- 

« 

Lassen, 

134 

tuted,                                413 

(1 

CO 

Latimer,  Hugh, 

329 

,  Roman,                      276 

^ 

Latin      language,      94, 

Legionaries,      Roman  ; 

^ 

"S 

263  ;    when    it   began 

equipment  of,                  276 

.0 

& 

to  be  superseded, 

115 

Leguminous  crops,             d'^ 

C4 

> 

Latin  Church,. 

290 

Leibnitz,                              131 

M 

C 

Latin,  Patristric, 

115 

Leipsic,  battle  of,              415 

.s 

£3 

Latins,  the, 

262 

,  staple  trade  of,         131 

"S 

O 

Latitude, 

24 

Leith,                                     29 

4) 

n 

Latium, 

262 

Leland,  John,                     139 

> 
0 

03 

Laud,  Archbishop, 

340 

Lely,  Sir  Peter,                  175 

u 

to 

^ 

Laurel,  use   of,  by  the 

Le  Notre,                            392 

Q 

CO 

Greeks  and  Romans, 

283 

Lens,  a  ;  focus  of  a,            52 

0 

CIS 

Lava, 

36 

Leo,                                         20 

0) 

03 

Lavater, 

132 

Isaurus,                       291 

a 

13 

La  Vendue,  war  in. 

410 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,           171 

> 

4J 

Lavoisier, 

129 

Leonidas,                             259 

"S 

Law,  John, 

392 

Leopold  of  Austria,          378 

if 

lU 

■ international,  201  ; 

of  Belgium,      369,  424 

•a 

1 

martial,    203  :     com- 

Lepidoptera,                       77 

IS 

(m 

mon  ;    English,    203  ; 

Lepidus,                             273 

T) 

o 

the  Canon,  202,  203  ; 

Lepsius,                              134 

4) 

.2 

a 

Roman  civil,  202  ;  in 

Lern^ean  hydra,                 244 

4) 

!H 

Great    Britain,    203  ; 

Lesage,                               128 

cd 

in  India  ;  in  the  Brit- 

Leslie, Charles,                  151 

% 

£ 

ish  colonies  ;  in  Scot- 

Lessing,                              132 

CJ 

CO 

land,  204  ;  of  demand 

L'etat,  c'est  moi,                389 

M 

fe 

and  supply,  214  ;  the 

Lethe,                                   248 

CO 

CO 

faculty  of, 

216 

Lettres  de  Cachet,            389 

(d 

cT 
o 

Laws  of  the  Medes  and 

Leuwenhoek,                     135 

6 

Q 

^ 

Persians, 

234 

Lever,  the,  62  ;  power. 

0 

c 
s 

Laws  of  nature, 

II 

how  modified  by;  ful- 

s 

Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas, 

176 

crum  of  a,  62  ;  exam- 

0) 

Leander, 

255 

ples  of  the,                        66 

The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in 

Paris;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page   407 

Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX.- 


liii 


Levites, 

Leyden,  John, 

-,  siege  of,  395  ;  ori- 
gin of  the  university 
of, 

Liberation,  war  of, 

Liberty,  cap  of, 

of  the  press,      loi, 

Liberum  Veto,  the, 

Libra, 

Library,  origin  of  the 
word, 

Libretto  of  an  opera, 

Lichens, 

Lichfield, 

Lictors, 

Liebig,  Baron, 

Liege, 

Liffey,  the  river, 

Light,  the  source  of; 
rate  at  which  it  trav- 
els ;  time  it  takes  to 
reach  the  earth  ;  re- 
fraction of ;  reflection 
of,  50  ;  polarization 
of;  uses  of,  51  ;  arti- 
ficial, 52  ;  phosphor- 
escent, 

Lightning  ;  injury  to 
buildings  from,  how 
averted, 

Lillo, 

Lilly,  William, 

Limerick, 

Limestone, 

Lincoln, 

,  Abraham, 

Linnaean  system  of  bot- 
any, 

Linnaeus,  67, 

Linne,  Karl, 

Lion  of  the  North,  the, 

Lisbon, 


227 
165 


396 

415 

407 
168 

399 

20 

97 

100 

28 
268 

133 

296 

26 


earth- 


53 


54 

150 

118 

29 

ZZ 

28 

429 

67 
132 
132 

385 
28 


Lisbon,     great 
quake  at,  426 

Literature ;  ancient,  of 
what  it  chiefly  con- 
sists, 94  ;  rabbinical, 
95  ;  the  two  great 
varieties  of,  99  ; 
Greek,  102  ;  Roman, 
no ;  Arabic,  116  ; 
Italian,  132 ;  Portu- 
guese ;  Spanish,  124 ; 
French,  125;  German, 
130;  Dutch,  134;  Rus- 
sian; Magyar  or  Hun- 
garian, 135  ;  English, 

137  ;  how  promoted 
in   the    15th   century, 

138  ;  commencement 
of  cheap  ;  pioneers 
of  popular ;  recent 
remarkable       change 

in,  168  ;  American,       168 

Littleton,  Sir  Thomas, 

Liverpool, 

Livy, 

L.  L.  D., 

Lloyds, 

Loadstone,  the. 

Lobsters, 

Lochs, 

Locke,  John, 

Lockhart,  J.  G., 

Logarithms,  discoverer 
of, 

Logic, 

Lombards,  the, 

Lombardy, 

Lomond,  loch, 

London,  28 ;  during 
the  Roman  occupa- 
tion, 309  ;  first  char- 
ter to ;  the  Tower 
built,  318  ;  first  bridge 


204 
28 
III 
218 
211 

54 

76 

29 

146 

166 

141 

102 

289 

289 

29 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles.— See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian   Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


liv                         ANALYTICAL    INDEX. L. 

built,  320 ;  the  Great 

Louis  le  D^bonuair, 

294 

Fire    of;    St.    Paul's 

Bonaparte, 

419 

Cathedral  destroyed — 

Napoleon, 

419 

rebuilt  ;      the     Great 

Philippe, 

417 

Plague  of,  242;  streets 

Quatorze  style, 

39^ 

lit  with  gas,                     368 

— ,  St., 

373 

Londonderry,                       29 

Louvois, 

393 

,  siege  of,                     348 

Lovatt,  Lord, 

Z^^ 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,          169 

Lovelace,  Richard, 

143 

Longinus,                            109 

Lover,  Samuel, 

166 

Longitude,                            24 

Lowell,  J.  R., 

169 

Lope  de  Vega,                    124 

Lowth,  Dr.  William, 

'51 

Lord  Advocate,  the,          206 

Lubeck,                       296, 

427 

Deputy  in  Ireland,  326 

Lucan, 

112 

Protector    Crom- 

Lucian, 

109 

well,                                  341 

Lucretius, 

III 

Lords  Spiritual,                 197 

Lucullus, 

239 

of   the   Congrega- 

Lunacy,   origin   of   the 

tion,                                  332 

term. 

22 

Louis  IL  of  Hungary,      377 

Lunar  cycle,  a, 

91 

IX.  of  France,           373 

month,                     21,  88         | 

XI.  of  France,          374 

rainbow,  a. 

51 

XII.  of  France,        375 

Luther,  Martin,         381, 

382 

XIII.  of  France,       386 

Lutheran  Church,  creed 

XIV.    of     France, 

of  the. 

382 

387;  character  of,  389; 

Lutzen,  battle  of. 

385 

his  contemporaries  in 

Luxembourg, 

392 

England  ;    his    treat- 

Lyceum,  origin  of  the 

ment  of  Charles  II.  of 

word. 

104 

England,  390 ;   death 

Lycurgus, 

257 

of,    391  ;    description 

Lydia, 

234 

of  the  reign  of,               392 

Lydians, 

224 

Louis  XV.  of  France, 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles, 

167 

393;  character  of,  393; 

Lyly,  John, 

142 

death  of,                           394 

Lyndsay,  Lady  Anne, 

160 

Louis  XVI.  of  France, 

,  Sir  David, 

140 

394,     404;     character 

Lyric  poetry ;  varieties 

of,  405  ;  fate  of,             408 

of. 

99 

Louis  XVII.  of  France,  411 

Lysippus, 

181 

XVIII.  of  France,  416 

Lytt  eton.  Lord, 

153 

Louisiana,  sold   to   the 

L  y  1 1 0  n ,   Sir    Edward 

United  States,                429 

Bulwer, 

166 

The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from     1793     to     1794. — See    page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815. — See   page    368. 


CO 


cr 

CO 

O 
V 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX.- 


-M. 


lY 


M. 


Macaulay,  Lord, 

Macbeth, 

Maccabees, 

Maccabeus,  Judas 

Macchiavelli, 

Macchiavellism, 

MacCulloch,      Horatio, 

the  painter, 
Macedon, 

Macedonian  phalanx, 
Machinery,  examples  of 

mechanical  powers  in, 

65  ;  special  use  of, 
Mackenzie,  Henry, 
Maclise, 

Macneill,  Hector, 
Macpherson,  James, 
Macrobius, 
Madagascar, 
Madeira, 
Madras, 
Madrid, 
Maecenas, 
Magazines,      the      first 

English, 
Magi,  the. 
Maggots,  how  brought 

into  connection  with 

decaying  substances, 
Magna     Charta,      321  ; 

leading  provisions  of. 
Magnetic  poles   of  the 

earth. 
Magnetism, 
Magnets,  artificial, 
Magyars,  the, 
Magyar  language,  the, 

literature. 

Mahogany-tree, 


166 
318 
230 

230 

123,  422 

422 


177 
239 
239 


64 

157 
178 
161 

155 
114 

23 
23 
30 
28 
274 

154 
235 


71 
321 

55 

54 

54 

377 

135 

135 

70 


Maid  of  Orleans,  the,       374 

of  Norway,  the,        319 

Mail-coaches  intro- 

duced, 365 

Maintenon,  Madame  de,  391 
Maize  (see  Indian  corn). 
Majesty,  his  most  Chris- 
tian, 375 
Majolica,  183 
Malayan  race  described ; 

why  so  called, 
Malbrook, 
Malcolm  Canmore, 

H.  of  Scotland, 

HI.  of  Scotland, 

IV.  of  Scotland, 


Malebranche, 

Mallet,  David,  152, 

Malplaquet,  battle  of, 

Malstrora  whirlpool, 
the. 

Malt, 

Malta,  Knights  of, 

taken  by  the  Brit- 
ish, 366, 

Mamelukes,  the. 

Mammalia,  the,  78  ;  na- 
ture of  ;  orders  of  the, 
80  ;  swimming, 

Man,  his  place  in 
animal  creation, 
82  ;  his  duty  to 
lower  animals, 
difference  between  his 
intelligence  and  that 
of  the  lower  animals  ; 
to  what  order  of  ani- 
mals assigned  ;  why 
said  to  be  an  account- 


83 

318 
318 
318 

319 

128 

351 

27 

67 

424 

424 
424 


81 


the 

71, 
the 

71 


^ 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


d 

V 

bo 

William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143 

CO 

Ivi                          ANALYTICAL    INDEX.         M. 

0) 

able  being  ;  races  of, 

Marlowe,  Christopher,     142 

0) 

1 

82  ;  examples   of   the 

Marmontel,                          129 

CO 

'6 

races  of,  82  ;  circum- 

Mars,  the    planet,    12  ; 

1 

c 
o 

stances  that   tend   to 

color  of,                             13 

8 

1 

degrade  the  races  of  ; 

Mars,                                    247 

0^ 

CO 

of  what  he  consists  ; 

Mars'  Hill,                          258 

8 

"bJ) 

present  state  of  man- 

Marseillaise, the,               193 

0" 

CO 

C 

kind,                                   84 

Marston     Moor,    battle 

w 

W 

Man,  Isle  of,                         29 

of,      _                               340 

rt 

Manchester,                          28 

Marsupialia,  the,                 80 

^ 

C 

Mandeville,  Sir  John,       138 

Martel,  Charles,                 293 

a> 

2 

03 

Manes,  the,                          264 

Martial  law,                         202 

1> 

Mantchee     dynasty    in 

Mary,   Queen  of    Eng- 

China,                              303 

land,                                  329 

g 

Maps,  how  constructed  ; 

Mary,  Queen   of   Scots, 

0 

cf 

what  they  represent,       25 

331  ;     her    husbands, 

A 
^ 

O^ 

Mar,  Earl  of,                      356 

{?>2,  2,2>?>  ;  her  fate,         2>3Z 

0 

Marat,                                   409 

Mary,    consort  of    Wil- 

0 

t) 

Marathon,  battle  of,  235,  259 

liam  III.,  347  ;  death 

% 

Marble,  Parian,                    35 

of,    .                                 350 

« 

March,    origin    of    the 

Masaniello,                         423 

.0 

t) 

name,                                   88 

Masonic  Guilds  of  the 

S 

4^ 

Marco  Polo,                        300 

Middle  Ages,                 119 

rt 

Marengo,  battle  of,            412 

Massacre  of  St.  Barthol- 

•d 

.t3 

Margaret,    Queen    of 

omew,                              381 

< 

Scotland,    her    influ- 

 of  the  loth  of  Au- 

CO 

j3 

ence  on  Scotland,          318 

gust,  1792,                       408 

0 

Margaret  Tudor,       330,  331 

Massillon,                            127 

buo 

Maria  Louisa,                     414 

Massinger,  Philip,             143 

(U 

0 

Theresa,             377,  403 

Materia  Medica,                 217 

0 

Si 

Marie  Antoinette,  404; 

Matter,  defined,  55  ;  den- 

m 

*" 

fate  of,                              408 

sity  of  ;  not  destructi- 

U 

Marine  painting,                170 

ble  ;    examples   of   it 

-d 

> 

2 

Mariners'  compass,  the, 

assuming  new  shapes,    56 

1 

h 

25,   55  ;    invented, 

Matilda,                               319 

*j 

300  ;  its  needle,   how 

Maude  the  Good,             319 

a 

•a 

made  to  turn  ;  points 

Mauritius,                              23 

A 
•w 

J 

of  the,                                 25 

Mausoleum,    origin    of 

Im 

rt 

Maritime  enterprise  in 

the  word,                         114 

0 

the    reign    of    Eliza- 

Maximian,                          275 

C! 
0 

T3 

beth,                                 330 

Maximilian   I.   of   Aus- 

'■3 
c4 

C 
3 

Marius,                                  270 

tria,                                    379 

3 

03 

Marlborough,  Duke  of,   35 1 

May,  origin  of  the  name,     S^ 

The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in   1588.— See   page  330 

The    Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302. 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX.- 


-M. 


V 


Mayence,   printing    in- 
vented at,  305 
Mayne,  James,  166 
Mazarin,  Cardinal,  387 
McCullough,  J.  R.,  167 
M.  D.,  218 
Mean  time,  92 
Mecca,  292 
Mechanical      combina- 
tion of  substances,  64 
Mechanical  powers,  61  ; 
examples   of   in    ma- 
chinery,                             62,  (iT^ 

Medes,                         224,  233 
and  Persians,  laws 

of  the,  234 

Medical  jurisprudence,  217 

Medici,  the,  305 

,  Catharine  de,  381 

,  Lorenzo  de,  305 

Medicinal  plants,  67 

Medicine,  the  faculty  of,  216 

Medieval,  meaning  of,  220 

history,                219,  287 

learning  and  arts,  115 

Mediterranean  Sea,  23  ; 

has   very    little    tide, 

and  why,  27 

Medusa,  253 

Medusae,  the,  use  of,  76 

Megaera,  250 

Melancthon,  382 

Melpomene,  251 

Memnon,  236 

Memphis,  237 

Mendel,  David,  133 

Mendelssohn,  192 

Menelaus,  243 

Mental  philosophy,  102 
Mercantile  consuls  (see 

Consuls). 

Mercury,                      245,  247 


Mercury,  the  planet,  12  ; 

color  of. 
Meridian,  the, 
Merle,  Jean  Henri, 
Merovingian  dynasty, 
Merowig, 
Mersey, 
Mesopotamia,  meaning 

Messiah,  meaning  of, 

Messidor,  the  month, 

Metals,  the  principal, 
35  ;  good  electric  con- 
ductors. 

Metaphysics, 

Metastasio, 

Metempsychosis,  author 
of  the  doctrine  of, 

Meteorolites,  why  lumi- 
nous. 

Meteorology, 

Methodists,  the, 

Methuen  Treaty, 

Meton, 

Metonic  cycle,  a. 

Metre, 

Metropolis,  a, 

Mexico, 

Meyerbeer, 

Michael  Angelo,        171, 

Michelet, 

Mickle,  William, 

Microscope, 

Midas,  ears  of. 

Middle  Ages,  the,,  287  ; 
fancies  regarding  the 
unseen  world  preva- 
lent in  the,  119  ;  fabu- 
lous animals  of  the  ; 
saints  of  the,  121  ; 
English  war-cry  in 
the,  122  ;  manners  in 


Ivii 


13 

17 
130 

289 

289 

26 

224 

229 

90 


53 
102 
124 

103 

57 

55 

357 

426 

91 

91 

100 

28 

31 
192 
172 
129 

155 

52 

254 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


1 

The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278 

Iviii                      ANALYTICAL    INDEX. M. 

C/} 

the  latter  part  of  the, 

denly    while    rolling 

0) 

299;  intelligence, how 

along  hills,                        44 

1 

j3 

communicated  in  the. 

Mite,  the  ;  legs  of  ;  how 

1 

S 

301  ;    traffic  between 

it  breathes,                        78 

tj 

t3 

India     and     Europe, 

Mitford,  Miss,                    166 

C4 

§ 

how  conducted  in  the, 

306 

Mithridates,                        239 

M 

1 

Midian, 

226 

the  Great,                  239 

0 

Mildew, 

67 

Mizraim,                              236 

0 

a> 

Mile,  origin  of, 

280 

Modern        civilization. 

0 

>^ 

Military  dictator, 

221 

summary    of     events 

> 

•a 

Milky  Way,  the, 

14 

which  promoted,            307 

<A 

X 

Mill,  John  Stuart, 

167 

Modern        Continental 

S 

" 

Mille  passuum, 

280 

history,                             373 

<4-l 

1 

Miller,  Hugh, 

167 

history,                        219 

u 

o 

,  Joe, 

151 

society,benefited  by 

CO 

O 

Millet,where  largely  used,  67 

ancient  Greece,  261  ; 

0 

> 

Milliarium  Aureum, 

280 

benefited  by  the  Ro- 

en 

Miltiades, 

289 

mans,  286;  indebted  to 

.3 

•g 

Milton,  John, 

145 

the  Arabians,                  293 

3 

0. 

Mimi,  the, 

114 

Mogul,  the  Great,             303 

CO 

Mimicry,  origin  of  the 

Mohammed,                       292 

•3 

1-c 

word. 

114 

II.,                               304 

0 

H 

Mind,the;  the  seat  of  the, 

84 

Mohammedanism,            292 

>» 

0) 

Mineral  springs. 

37 

Mohammedan  era,              85 

J^ 

1 

Mineralogy,      35  ;       as 

Moisture,  exhaled  into 

4> 

known  to  the  ancients, 

38 

the  atmosphere,  what 

0 

(in 

Minerals, 

35 

becomes  of  it,                   44 

V 

Minerva, 

247 

Moisture  in  the   inside 

2 

c 
11 

Ming  dynasty  in  China, 

Z^Z 

of  glass  windowsjhow 

0 

o 

p 

Minnesingers, 

301 

caused,                             44 

0) 

(/3 

a 

Minos, 

255 

Moli^re,                      127,  353 

^ 

■3 

Minotaur,  the. 

255 

Mollusca,  the,                72,76 

u 

■M 

0) 

Minstrels, 

301 

Momentum,                         61 

(4 

Mirabeau, 

407 

Mommsen,                          134 

(0 

s 

Miracle  play, 

120 

Momus,                       114,  248 

Mississippi,  the  river, 

26 

Monarchy,      in      Great 

(4 

O 

Mississippi  scheme. 

392 

Britain  a  national  in- 

CO 

o 

Missionaries  to  Britain, 

313 

stitution,  why,                198 

% 

e 

Missouri,  the  river, 

26 

Monarchy  abolished  in 

r^ 

Mist,  what  it  is  ;  why  it 

England,  340  ;    abol- 

> 

disappears      in      fine 

ished  in  France,    408,  418 

C 

weather;  why  it  some- 

Monarchy,        constitu- 

'-d 

V 

> 

V 

M 

a> 

XI 

times  disappears  sud- 

tional,                              221 

> 

'S 

> 

( 

Daptain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779 — See  page  365. 

. 

Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and 

Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133. 

4 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. M.                        Ivix 

4) 

Monarchical       govern- 

Moon, the;  its  size,  15; 

CO 

1 

ment, 

220 

its    substance  ;    its 

1 
p 

Monasteries,  290  ;  abol- 

light ;  its   mountains 

V 

ished  in  England, 

328 

and  valleys  ;    not  in- 

z 

Monday,   origin  of  the 

habited  ;  its  motions, 

•o 

name, 

89 

21  ;  why  we  never  see 

OS 

Money,    origin    of    the 

more  than  one  side  of 

a 

word. 

211 

it ;  its  phases  ;  eclipse 

.2 

Mongolia, 

302 

of  the  ;  how  caused,     •  22 

Mongolian      race,      de- 

Moore, Dr.  John,               157 

c^ 

scribed  ;        why       so 

,  Sir  John,                   367 

called, 

83 

,  Thomas,                     164 

>> 
^ 

Mongols,  the,  302  ;  sub- 

Moors, kingdom  of  the, 

due    China,  303  ;    re- 

293 ;      driven      from 

ligion  of  the. 

304 

Spain,                               304 

C 

Monk,  General, 

342 

Moraine,  a,                             64 

a{ 

Monmouth,    Duke     of. 

Moral  Philosophy,             102 

342  ;  his  fate, 

346 

Morat,  battle  of,                 379 

0 

Monopoly, 

215 

Moray,  Randolph,  Earl 

Monotheism, 

231 

of,                                      323 

q" 

Monotremata,  the. 

80 

More,  Hannah,                   159 

.5 

Monroe  Doctrine,  the, 

429 

,  Sir  Thomas,      138,  328 

ctf 

Monroe,  James, 

429 

Morgan,  Lady,                   166 

S 

Montagu,    Lady    Mary 

Morgarten,  battle  of,        378 

o 

Wortley, 

150 

Morning  Star  of  the  Ref- 

V 

Montaigne, 

126 

ormation,                         325 

S 

Montesquieu,  Baron  de. 

128 

Morpheus,                           248 

« 

Montgomery,  Alexander 

,141 

Mosaic  record,  the,            227 

C 

,  James, 

165 

Moses,  character  of,         226 

a 

Month,    origin    of    the 

Moser,                                 134 

3 

term,  88  ;  a  lunar,  21, 

Mosheim,                            132 

88;  a  calendar;  a  civil, 

Moslem,                              292 

88  ;  the,  how  divided 

Mosque  of  Omar,             292 

by  the  Romans, 

89 

Moss,  Thomas,                  155 

o 

Monthly  Review,  the. 

162 

Mosses,                                 ()(i 

Months,    origin    of    the 

Motion,  tendency  of  a 

**3 

names    of     the ;    the, 

body  in  a  state  of,           60 

*C 

when  named  and  ar- 

Mould,                                  67 

> 

ranged,88;  how  named 

Mountain,     highest    in 

u 

in  the  French  revolu- 

Europe, 28  ;  the  high- 

> 

tionary  calendar, 

90 

est  in  Great  Britain,       29 

Montreal, 

31 

Mountainous  countries, 

Montrose,  Marquis  of, 

340 

why  the  most  rainy,        46 

Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


00 
CO 
V 

bo 

2. 

Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  6« 

>• 
S" 

& 
s. 

Ix                          ANALYTICAL     INDEX. N. 

Mountains,    24  ;    cause 

Mummery,  origin  of  the 

M 
1 

of,  18;  why  they  cause 

word,                                120 

1, 

clouds,    46  ;    tops    of 

Municipal  government,    223 

0' 

d 
§ 

high,  why  perpetually 

Murat,                                  423 

0 

o 

covered  with  snow,         47 

Murchison,   Sir  Roder- 

< 

o 

Mount  Caucasus,               250 

ick  J.,                               167 

^ 

CO 

Etna,                           247 

Murillo,                                175 

T3 

Helicon,                     253 

Murray,  Earl  of,                333 

(0 

Q 

o 

Hymettus,                 261 

Muses,  the,                          251 

*s 

^ 

Ida,                              248 

Music  ;  of  the  ancients. 

Nebo,                         226 

190  ;    national ;    Scot- 

a 

*-• 

Olympus,                  246 

tish,                                   192 

5 

.2 

Ossa,                           246 

Musical  composers;  the 

i 

Pelion,                       246 

great  modern,                 191 

.5 

>» 

Sinai,                           226 

Musical  instruments  of 

3 

Mozart,                                 191 

the  Hebrews,                  190 

eg 
Q 

g^ 

Mule,                                      73 

Mussulman,                        292 

•d 

(« 

MuUer,                                134 

Mutiny  act,  the,                 349 

Mulock,  Miss,                     166 

Mysteries,                            120 

c 

Mulready,  the  painter,      176 

Myth,  a,                                241 

.2 

Mum,  origin  of  the  word,  120 

Mythology,  Greek,  241  ; 

5 

5 

9 

1 

Mummeries,                      120 

Roman,                          264 

1 

>*4 
CO 

N. 

^4 

"Si 

^ 

Names   of  the   days  of 

Napier,  John,                    141 

0 

** 

the    week,  origin    of 

,  Lord,  of  Magdala,  372 

CO 

g 

the  ;  employed  in  the 

,  Sir  Charles,              371 

'3 

records  of  parliament,  89 

Naples,    281  ;    bay     of,               i 

•a 

o 

Names  of  the  days  in  a 

265,  282  ;  patron  saint 

1 
0 

o 

decade  of  the  French 

of,                                     121 

s 

revolutionary  calendar,  90 

Napoleon      Bonaparte, 

1) 

J3 

2 

Names  of   the  months, 

365,  411  ;  tactics   of  ; 

"^ 

origin  of  the,                    88 

first   consul ;  marries 

2 

4) 

Names   of    the   months 

Josephine  ;  in  Egypt, 

^ 

rt 

in  the  French  revolu- 

412 ;  emperor  of   the 

CO 
4> 

5 

tionary  calendar,             90 

French,  413  ;  changes 

CA 
3 

s^ 

Nancy,  siege  of,                379 

made  by  him  on  con- 

S 

.s 

Nantes,  Edict  of,      386,  389 

tinental    States,    415, 

a 

a 
o 

J 

J 

Naphtha,                               i2> 

430 ;  divorces  Joseph- 

ulius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    iii. 

The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of   45    Miles.— See   page  47 

1 

s. 
s. 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. N.                   '      Ixi 

9> 
V 

ine  and  marries  Maria 

Neo-Platonism,                  108 

Louisa  ;  his   Russian 

Nepos,  Cornelius,             112 

C/3 

1 

ii 

campaign  ;  abdication 

Neptune,  the  planet,          12 

1 
Q 

CO 

e 
S 

of,    415  ;    exile     and 

Neptunian  theory,  the,     162 

< 

death  of,                368,  416 

Neptune,                     246,  247 

o\ 

Napoleon  II.,                     416 

Nero,  274  ;  character  of; 

t^ 

a; 

Napoleon    III.  ;    policy 

successors  of,                275 

C 

^ 

of  ;  exile  and  death  of,  420 

Nerva,                                  275 

co" 

O 
4> 

Napoleon,  the  Code,         414 

Nestor,                                244 

>3 

Q 

Narcissus,                           253 

Netherlands,     attached 

> 

3 

Naseby,  battle  of,             340 

to       Austria,       379 ; 

CO 

> 

Nasmyth,  Alexander,       177 

early  history  of  the, 

t 

Natatores,  the  ;  the  best 

394 ;    history   of    the 

0 

o 

u 

known,                               79 

Northern  ;  history  of 

s 

PU 

Nation,  a,                     27,  220 

the     Southern,     396  ; 

"o 
> 

CO 

National  Covenant,          338 

kingdom    of    the,  as 

1> 

O 

debt  of  England  ; 

defined  by  the  Treaty 

A 

^ 

commencement        of 

of   Vienna  ;    divided, 

0 

•§ 

the,      350 ;       present 

423  ;    language     and 

c 

O 

amount  of,                       372 

literature  of  the,             134 

0 

G 

National  music,                 193 

New  Brunswick,                  30 

a 

0 

Nations,  battle  of,             415 

Newcastle,                            28 

2 

O 

Natural        philosophy. 

Newfoundland,                    23 

c 
o 

definition  of,                     64 

New  Orleans,                      31 

S 

5 

Nature ;    the    laws    of. 

Plymouth,                  38S 

>^ 

1 1  ;    the    balance  of  ; 

style,    adopted    in 

.Q 

instance    of     its    de- 

England, 360  ;  differ- 

13 

c4 

rangement  by  man,         72 

ence  between  the  old 

s 

Navarre,  kingdom  of,      385 

and  the  ;  how  adopted 

1 

'> 

Nave,  the,                           188 

in  Great  Britain,              Zd 

Q 

Neander,                             133 

Newspapers,  their  first 

> 

0 

o" 

Neapolis,                            281 

appearance    in    Eng- 

Neap tide,  a,                        26 

land,                                145 

C 

Nebo,  Mount,                    226 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,            148 

% 

c<S 

Nebuchadnezzar,               229 

New  World,  the,  its  dis- 

a 

o 

Necker,                                405 

coverers,                '           31 

0 
0 

s 

Nectar,                                248 

New  Year's  day,  when 

ctf 

Negro  race,   described, 

changed  to  ist  Janu- 

C 

83  ;  color  of  the,  how 

ary,    87 ;    changed  in 

I 

o 

accounted  for,                  84 

Scotland,      333  ;      in 

a 

n 

Nelson,  Lord,                     366 

England,                         360 

-d 

Nemean  games,                 254 

New  York,                           31 

ctf 

6 

_■- 

Nemesis,                             250 

Zealand,                23,  30 

rhe  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728.— See  page  154. 

The    Amazons    were    a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors.— See    page    243. 


Ixii                        ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 0. 

Niagara,  falls  of,                26 

Norman  crosses,               322 

Nibelungen-lied,  the,        131 

Normandy,                          300 

Nicaea,   council    of  the 

Norman       variety       of 

Church  at,                       290 

Gothic  architecture,      188 

Nicene  Creed,                  .  290 

Normans,  the,                    300 

Nicholas  of  Russia,         401 

Norsemen,  the,                  300 

Niebuhr,                             133 

Northamptonshire  pea- 

Night,                                250 

sant,  the,                         165 

Nile,  the  river,    30,  226,  236 

Northern  Ocean,                 23 

,  battle  of  the,             412 

North   Star,  the ;    how 

Nimbus  in  art,  the,           178 

known,  13  ;  how  use- 

 ,  the  cloud  ;   when 

ful,                                      14 

seen  most  perfectly,       46 

North,  Lord,                      362 

Nimrod,                               232 

American  colonies 

Nineveh,  232;  destroyed,  234 

commenced,                   330 

Nirvana,                              304 

Nostradamus,                     118 

Nitrogen,                              41 

Nova  Scotia,                        30 

Nivose,  the  month,             90 

Novels,  sensational,         168 

Noah,                                  224 

November,  origin  of  the 

Nobility,  the,                     195 

name,                                  88 

Nones,                                  89 

Noyades,                            409 

Nonidi,  the  day,                  90 

Number,  the  Golden,         91 

Noon,  meaning  of,             17 

(See  Golden.) 

Nomadic,  meaning  of,     224 

Number,   the  origin  of 

Nonconformists,                337 

all  things  ;  author  of 

Nonjurors,                          350 

the  doctrine,                   104 

No  Popery,                        364 

Numidia,                             270 

Norman  Conquest,  the. 

Numismatics,                    211 

316  ;  its  effect  on  the 

Ntirnberg,                          296 

English  language,        317 

Nymphs,  the,                    252 

0. 

Gates,  Titus,                      343 

26,  27;  how  otherwise 

Oats  ;  uses  of,                     67 

agitated  ;  currents,         27 

Occult  arts,                         118 

Oceanus,                             245 

Ocean,    an  ;     examples 

Octavianus,   Caius    Ju- 

of, 23  ;  depth  of  the ; 

lius  Caesar,                     273 

nature  of  the  water  of 

Octavius,                             273 

the,  26  ;  tides  of  the. 

Octidi,  the  day,                  90 

Croesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg. — See    page   305. 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX,        0. 

Ixiii 

October,  origin  of  the 

Ores, 

35 

name,                                  88 

Orford,  Earl  of. 

157 

Ode,  an,                                 99 

Organic  bodies. 

55 

Odin,                                    300 

Organization  of  Labor, 

Odoacer,                             285 

the  French, 

418 

Odyssey,  Homer's,            102 

Orientals, 

30 

Ohio,  tlie  river,                     26 

Origen, 

115 

Oil,  how  formed  in  the 

Orion,  the  constellation 

^   13 

earth  ;  parafine,               38 

's  belt. 

13 

Oil-painting,                       170 

Orkney   Isles,  29  ;  how 

springs,       where 

obtained  by  Scotland, 

324 

found,                                 38 

Orlando  Furioso, 

123 

Old    style ;     difference 

Innamorato, 

123 

between    it    and    the 

Orleans,  Dukes  of. 

387 

new  style,  ^d  ;  people 

,  family  of, 

387 

that  still  adhere  to,         87 

,  the  Regent, 

392 

Oligarchy,  an,                    221 

Ormuzd, 

235 

Olympiad,  an,  254  ;  the 

Ornithorhynchus,  the, 

80 

first,                            85,  256 

Orpheus, 

251 

Olympic  games,                 254 

Orthoptera,  the, 

77 

gods,       Roman 

Oscans, 

262 

names  of,  246;  Greek 

Osiris, 

238 

names  of,                         247 

Ossa, 

246 

Olympus,  Mount,             246 

Ostade, 

175 

Omar,  mosque  of,             292 

Ostracism, 

258 

Ontario,  lake,                       26 

Ostrogoths, 

284 

Opera,  an  ;  the  libretto 

0  tempora,  0  mores  ! 

271 

of  an,  100;  an  Italian,  192 

Otho, 

275 

Opie,  John,                         176 

Otway,  Thomas, 

146 

,  Mrs.,                           166 

Oudenarde,  battle  of. 

351 

Ophidia,  the,                        79 

Overbury,  Sir  Thomas, 

144 

Optics  defined,                    52 

Ovid,                           III, 

287 

Oracles,  the  Greek,          253 

Oviparous  animals. 

73 

Orange,  Prince  of,  395  ; 

Ovoviparous  animals, 

73 

assassinated,                    396 

Owen,  John, 

147 

Orange,  Prince  of,           347 

,  Richard, 

167 

Oratorio,  an,                       191 

Owenson,  Miss, 

166 

Orchideous  plants,              68 

Oxford, 

28 

Ordeal,  trial  by,                 315 

,  Earl  of. 

168 

Order  of  the  Garter,  or- 

Oxygen, 

41 

igin  of  the,                      122 

Oyer  and  terminer, 

203 

Oidersin  Council,  195,367 

Sound    Travels    at   the    Rate   of  1,125    Feet  per   Second. — See  page  49. 


in 

« 

bo 
a 

0) 
V 

03 
1 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821. — See  page  411 

1 

4) 

S. 

CO 

Ixiv                       ANALYTICAL 

INDEX. P. 

i 

CO 

P 

Pachydermata,  the,             81 

307  ;  manufacture  of, 

1 

CO 

.2 

3 

CU 

Pacific  Ocean,  the,               23 

by     machinery,     per- 

.^ 

^ 

Pactolus,  the  river,            254 

fected, 

368 

2: 

Pagans,                                   84 

Paphos, 

24S 

0 

Painted   glass-windows 

Papyrus, 

97 

0 

C 

in  Europe,  date  of  the 

Par, 

214 

^ 

rt 

oldest,                               178 

Paracelsus, 

118 

'3 
3 

Painting,    leading     de- 

Paradise Lost, 

148 

u 

s 

partments     of,     170; 

Parafine-oil, 

38 

<K 

schools  of,                       171 

Paraguay, 

31 

0 

8 

Palaeontology,                      2>?i 

Parasitic            animals  ; 

A 

■«f 

Palaeotherium,  the,              z^y 

plants. 

74 

u 

r] 

•• 

Palatinate,  the,          335,  384 

Parian  marble, 

Z'-i 

^ 

"5 

Palatine  Hill,             263,  277 

Paris,  28  ;  patron  saint 

W) 
0 

o 

Pale,  the,                             324 

of, 

121 

C5 

Palestine,                             227 

,  son  of  Priam, 

243 

Paley,  Dr.  William,           158 

,  Count  de. 

417 

c 

Palimpsests,                           97 

,  parliament  of. 

3^8 

w 

Palissy,  Bernard,                183 

Park,  Mungo, 

159 

6 

CO 

Palladio;  the  English,       189 

Parliament,      a,      222  ; 

0 
u 

Palladium,  the,                  244 

names  of  the  days  of 

■^ 

^ 

Palm,  Van  der,                   135 

the    week    employed 

(U 

a 

Palmer,  John,                     365 

in  the  records  of,  89  ; 

s 

0 

-B 

Palmerston,  Lord,             147 

Houses  of,    T94-198  ; 

(0 

.2 

Palmyra,                              228 

a   session    of  ;    dura- 

• •1 

^ 

Pau,                                      249 

tion  of,  196  ;  Houses 

Pandects  and  Institutes 

of,  chairmen    in   the, 

X 
U 

1) 

of  Justinian,                   288 

197  ;  an  act  of,   198  ; 

0 

6 
< 

Pandora,                              250 

of  England  first  con- 

2 

rt 

Panis  et  Gircenses,           274 

stituted,  321  ;  of  Ire- 

0) 

"3 

Pantheon,  the,                    277 

land   instituted,  323  ; 

G 

O 

Pantomime,  the,  origin 

the   Scots,   334  ;    the 

> 

c 

of  the  word,                    114 

Long;  the  Barebones, 

Pantomimi,  the,                 114 

341  ;  the  first  British, 

6 

i 

Paoli,  General,                  393 

353 ;      the     imperial. 

3 

s 

Papal  dominions,  capi- 

^66 ;  of  Paris,        387,  406      | 

fe 

c 

tal  of,                                  28 

Parmenides, 

107 

rt 

Paper,    origin     of     the 

Parnassus, 

251 

CO 

•tH 

a 
< 

word,    97  ;    invented, 

Parnell,  Thomas, 

150 

A 
^ 
% 

< 

'  Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighth 

ood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 

The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients.— See    page    ii8 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. P.                         Ixv 

lU 

!       Paros,                                    35 

Peers,  by  whom  created,  195 

w 

i       Parsees,  religion  of  the,  235 

Pegasus  ;  to  mount,         253 

1 

Parthenon,  the,                  260 

Peisistratus,                        258 

1 

t-l 
CO 

Parthian  darts,                   236 

Pelasgians,                          241 

1 

^ 

Parthians,  the,                    236 

Peleus,                         244,  252 

2 

C 

Pascal,  Blaise,            126,  391 

Pelion,                                 246 

0 

<u 

Pasht,                                   238 

Pella,                                    239 

V 

Pass  of  Thermopylae,       259 

Peloponnesian  War,         260 

■A 

M 

Passages-at-arms,              299 

Peloponnesus,                   241 

*** 

Q 

(U 

Passive  obedience,            346 

Penates,  the,                       264 

^ 

Pathology,                          217 

Pendulum,    a,  how   af- 

CO 

ctf 

Patois,  a,                               94 

fected  by  attraction  ; 

■l 

T3 

Paton,  Noel,  the  painter,  177 

how     regulated,    58; 

0 

<u 

Patriarchal  government,  220 

when  introduced,            93 

3 

Patriarchs   of    Constan- 

Penelope,                           244 

1 

P3 

tinople,                             291 

Penelope's  Web,               245 

0 

CO 

Patricians,  the,                   264 

Peneus,  the  river,              261 

^ 

Patristic  Latin,                   115 

Peninsula,  a,                         23 

►*< 

: 

Patron,                                 264 

Peninsular  War,                367 

g 

CO 

saints,                          121 

Penn,  William,                  345 

% 

Paul,  the  Apostle,   ap- 

Pennsylvania colonized,  345 

•> 

o 

peals  to  Rome,               269 

Pentateuch,  the,                226 

U 

«M 

Paul  de  la  Roche,             174 

Penny,    origin    of    the 

0 

I.   of  Russia,  fate 

word,                                212 

bo 

•1-1 

of,                                    401 

Pepin,                          292,  295 

<J 

Veronese,                   172 

Pepys,  Samuel,                  147 

g 

Paulding,  J.  K.,                 169 

Perault,                                392 

•rl 

Paulus,                                 134 

Percy,    Earl  of   North- 

2 

^ 
S 

Pausanias,                    109,  259 

umberland,                      325 

rM 

2  ! 

Pavia,  289  ;  battle  of,       375 

Percy,  Dr.  Thomas,           155 

0 
A 

Pearson,                               147 

Perennial  plants,                 dZ 

*■> 

CO 
V 

a 

Pebbles,                                34 

Periander  of  Corinth,       102 

bo 

Pecuniary ;     origin     of 

Pericles,                     179,    259 

< 

CI 

6 

the  word,                        211 

Period,   a    prehistoric  ; 

a 

o 

CO 

Pediment  of  a  building, 

evidence  of  a  prehis- 

2 

(0 

the,                                   190 

toric,                                223 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,              371 

Peripatetic  philosophy,    104 

Peerage,       the,        195  ; 

Peripatetics,                       105 

*^ 

^ 

grounds     on     which 

Peronne,                              375 

fc^ 

^ 

persons  are  raised  to 

Persecution     in     Scot- 

CUD 

o 

(1 

the  ;     ranks    in    the, 

land,                                332 

c 

< 

195;  national  distinc- 

Persepolis,                         235 

V 

o 

G 
c4 

tions  in  the,                    196 

Perseus,                              255 

1 

1 

"he    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000     Square    Miles.— See    page   23. 

-J 

The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


Ixvi                         ANALYTICAL    INDEX. P. 

Persia,      30 ;       ancient 

Philippi,  battle  of,             273 

name  of,                           234 

Philippics,                           262 

Persian     empire,    230  ; 

Philips,  Ambrose,             150 

extent  of,                         234 

-,  John,                           145 

language,  the,             94 

Philistines,                          227 

Persians,                              224 

Phillip,  John,  the  paint- 

Perspective,                        170 

er,                                      177 

Perth,                                     29 

Philology  defined,              93 

Peru,                                      31 

Philomela  (Philomel),      253 

Peter  III.  of  Russia,         398 

Philosopher's  stone,  the,  117 

the  Great,                   397 

Philosophers  of  Greece,  262 

the  Hermit,                298 

Philosophy  ;  m  e  n  t  a  1  ; 

Pindar,                        155 

moral,    102  ;    peripa- 

Petrarch,                             123 

tetic,  104  ;  the  Scotch 

,  the  English,              142 

school  of,                         161 

Petroleum,                             38 

Phocidae,  the,                        81 

Pewter,                                   39 

Phocis,                                 256 

Phaedon,                                105 

Phoebus,                               247 

Phaedrus,                               112 

Phoenicia,                            235 

Phaeton,                                 249 

Phoenicians,                224,  236 

Pharaoh,                               226 

Phoinikes,                           269 

Pharaohs,  the,    '                 236 

Phosphorescent  light,         53 

Pharisees,                            231 

Photography,                      178 

Pharmacopaeia,  a,              217 

Phrenology,  founder  of,   133 

Pharmacy,                           217 

Physalis,  the,                        76 

Pharos,                                 240 

Physics,  definition  of,         64 

Pharsalia,  battle  of,          271 

Pibroch,  a,                           192 

Pheme,                                 252 

Pichegru,                             411 

Phidias,                        179,  262 

Picts,  the,                             312 

Philadelphia,                        31 

Pictures,  different  kinds 

founded,                     345 

of,                                     177 

Philip  II.  of  Spain,  394,  395 

Piece  of  eight,  a,               212 

of  Macedon,      239,  260 

Pigeon  tribes,  the,              80 

Philiphaugh,  battle  of,    340 

Pigments,                            170 

Philippa,  Queen,              324 

Pilgrim  Fathers,  the,        337 

Philippe  de  Comines,       125 

Pilgrimages  to  the  Holy 

,  Duke  of  Orleans, 

Land,                                297 

387,  392 

to  Canterbury,          320 

,  Duke  of  Orleans, 

Pilgrims,  costume  of,       297 

407,  409,  411 

Pillar  dollar,  the,               212 

Egalite,               407  409 

Pillars  of  Hercules,         243 

IV.  of  France,           374 

Pincian  Hill,                       277 

VI.  of  France,           392 

Pindar,                         103,  262 

• 

Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in   Mythology,  was   the   Food    of  the   Gods. — See  page   248. 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX.- 


-P. 


Ixvii 


156 

70 

331 


43 

257 
20 

78 

102 

425 

342 
24 


Pindar,  Peter, 

Pine-trees, 

Pinkie,  battle  of 

Pipes  for  warming 
houses,  why  painted 
black, 

Piraeus, 

Pisces,  the  Sign, 

,  the. 

Pistil  of  a  plant, 

Pittacus, 

Pitt,  William, 

Pius  IX., 

Plague  of  London,  the 
Great, 

Plains, 

Planets,  the  ;  their  size  ; 
their  number ;  largest 
of  the  ;  the  principal ; 
what  they  are,  12  ; 
how  distinguished 
from  stars  ;  their 
colors ;  the  most 
beautiful  of  the,  13  ; 
secondary,  15  ;  how 
sustained  in  the 
heavens  ;  their  shape, 

Plans  of  buildings, 

Plantagenet ;  Goeffrey, 
320  ;  dynasty  ;  origin 
of,  320  ;  end  of 

Plantation  of  Ulster, 

Plantigrade  quadrupeds^  74 

Plants,  how  produced, 
64 ;  kinds  of ;  their 
kind^  of  life ;  how 
nourished ;  effect  on 
of  light;  use  of  the 
air  to  ;  their  seeds, 
how  produced;  seeds 
of,  how  they  grow  ; 
vitality  of  the  seeds 
of,      65  ;      cryptoga- 


16 
190 


326 


mous  ;  their  seeds, 
how  diffused  by  na- 
ture ;  that  fling  their 
seeds  from  them  when 
ripe  ;  fungous,  dd  ; 
classification  of,  67 ; 
esculent ;  cereal ; 

fibrous  ;      medicinal, 
67  ;  leguminous,  bul- 
bous ;   annual  ;  bien- 
nial ;  perennial  ; 
herbaceous  ;  orchide- 
ous,      68 ;        exotic  ; 
exotics  used  in  Great 
Britain;  indigenous; 
acclimatizing  of,  69  ; 
parasitic,  74 
(See  Trees,  Fruits.) 
Plassey,  battle  of,             360 
Plastic  arts,  the,                178 
Platea,  battle  of,                259 
Plato,                          106,  262 
Platonic  affection,             106 
Plautus,                              1 10 
Playing-cards,  invented,  184 


Plebiscitum,  the, 

Plebs,  the, 

Pleiades,  the, 

Pleione, 

Plinth  of  a  column,  the, 

Pliny  the  elder, 

the  younger, 

Plotinus, 

Plough,  constellation  of 

the, 
Plumb-line,  the, 


Plutarch, 

Pluto, 

Plutonic  theory,  the, 

Pluviose,  the  month, 

Plymouth, 

P.  M., 

Pneumatics, 


268 
264 
245 
245 
190 

113 
113 
108 

13 

109,  262 
243,  246 


162 
90 

28 

9Z 
48 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See   page    230. 


i 

0) 

bo 
2. 

The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242 

i 

bo 

(4 

Ixviii                     ANALYTICAL     INDEX. P. 

4\ 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,             169 

Pope,  Alexander,              150 

4) 
05 

1 

Poet-laureate,  the,  office 

Pope,  the,                           290 

\ 

1 

of,                                     167 

Popery,  No,                       36^ 

R 

Poetry  defined  ;  princi- 

Popes at  Avignon,             302 

"S 

M 

pal   kinds   of  ;    epic  ; 

Population  of  Europe,       32 

0) 

> 

.s 

lyric  ;  dramatic,              99 

of  the  world,               32 

(4H 

0 

i> 

Poetry   of  the   Anti- 

Poquelin,                             127 

0" 

5 

Jacobin,                            161 

Porphyrins,                         108 

I 

0 

Poictiers,  battle  of,           324 

Portia,                                  272 

CO 

Points  of  the  compass,      25 

Portland  Vase,  the,           183 

u 

M 

Poland,   form   of    gov- 

Port-royalists, the,  390  ; 

^ 
s 

.2' 

ernment  in  ;  first  par- 

suppressed,                    391 

^ 

>» 

tition  of,  399 ;  second 

Portrait  painting,               170 

43 

partition    of  ;     third 

Portsmouth,                          28 

1 

> 

partition  of,                     400 

Portugal,  28;  capital  of,  130 

M 

c 

Polar  regions  ;  why  so 

28  ;  independence  of,  486 

c 

G 

cold,                                    20 

Portuguese  literature,       124 

(U 

0 

Pole,    meaning    of    the 

Poseidon,                             247 

term,                                   18 

Positivism  ;  founder  of,   130 

% 

CO 

t 

Pole     Star,     the,     how 

Post  meridian,                      93 

[^ 

^ 

known,  13  ;  how  use- 

Potato,  the;    when    in- 

■q 

CO 
(U 

ful,                                       14 

troduced  into  Europe,    68 

S 

rt 

Poles,                                  301 

Potemkin,  Prince,             399 

a> 

W 

,     the     north     and 

Potter,  Paul,                       174 

C 

•d 

south,                                 18 

Pound  in  money  ;  ori- 

(U 

> 

.t; 

Political  economy,           214 

gin  of  the  word,             212 

C 

h^ 

Pollen  of  a  plant,                65 

Poussin,  Nicholas,    173,  392 

oT 

u 

Polo,  Marco,                      300 

Power-loom  invented,     365 

<u 

^ 

Polybius,                             108 

Poyning's  law,          326,  327 

2 

«*1 

0 

,  the  Italian,                 123 

Pozzuoli,                             282 

^3 

*; 

Polyhymnia,                       251 

Prairial,  the  month,           90 

1) 

.a 

(U 

Polyphemus,                       245 

Praxiteles,                          181 

3 

Polypi,                                   75 

Praefectus  Urbis,               274 

& 

V 

Polytheist,  a,                      231 

Praetors,                               268 

C4 

(U 

Pompadour,  Madame  de,  393 

Pragmatic  sanction,          404 

(tf 

£ 

Pompeii,                              281 

Prague,  battle  of,              384 

.2 

b 

Pompey,              230,  240,  271 

,  Huss  and  Jerome 

CO 
(0 

c" 

Pontifex  Maximus,           264 

of,                                    381 

2 

Pontiffs,  the,                       264 

Prayer,  Book  of  Com- 

6 

bo 
C 

Poor-law    in    England, 

mon,  compiled,             329 

0 
0 

first,                                  330 

Precedence,  scale  of,         198 

Ui 

(It 

S 

0 

Poor-laws,     origin      of 

Prefects,  French,               419 

(3 

English,                           330 

Prefet,  origin  of.               274 

'u 

H 

rhe   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page   407. 

to 
to 
« 

& 

Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See 

page  54 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. P. 

Ixix 

1) 

1) 

Prehistoric  period  ;  evi- 

Procrustean bed,  a, 

249 

4) 

1 

dences  of  a,                    223 

Procrustes, 

249 

1 

1 

Premium,                             214 

Procurator  fiscal, 

206 

d 

S 

Pre-Raphaelite  pictures,  177 

Profane    history,    219 

pd 

O 

Presburg         university 

commences. 

224 

CO 

.2 

founded,                          377 

Prometheus, 

249 

rt 

X 

Presbyterianism  finally 

Promised  Land, 

226 

•T3 

O 

established    in    Scot- 

Promontory, a, 

23 

to 

land,                                347 

Propertius, 

III 

>4 

4> 

(0 

*> 

Presbyterians,  the,             337 

Prophet,  a. 

227 

< 

c4 

Prescott,  W.  H.,                169 

Prophetic  books, 

229 

c 

K 

Press,    liberty    of   the  ; 

Proserpine, 

246 

i 

V 

its    freedom    in     the 

Protean-like, 

253 

!3 

^ 

United  Kingdom,          168 

Protective     policy     in 

n 

a 

Prester  John,                     302 

trade. 

215 

..» 

irt" 

Preston,                                 28 

Protector  Somerset,  the, 

329 

c<S 
0 

'So 

Prestonpans,  battle  of,     358 

Protestant,  origin  of, 

382 

b 

Pretender,  the,  352  ;  the 

Proteus, 

252 

-d 

£ 

Young,                             358 

Providence,  city  of, 

345 

•s 

Priam,                                  243 

Prudhon, 

418 

2 

o 

Prideaux,  Dr.  Humph- 

Prussia, capital  of,  28  ; 

< 

to 

2 

rey,                                   151 

history  of. 

402 

« 

"S 

Priestley,  Joseph,              161 

Psalmist,  the. 

228 

O 

Prime  minister  in  Eng- 

Psyche, 

252 

2 
0 
•S 

buO 

land,                                194 

Psychology, 

102 

C 

Primidi,  the  day,                 90 

Ptolemies,  the. 

240 

0 

(4 

ii2 

Primogeniture,  the  rule 

Ptolemaic     system     of 

0 

>% 

^ 

9f>                             195 

astronomy, 

105 

g" 

•d 

Primum  Mobile,  the,        105 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 

240 

0 

Prince,  the  Black,             324 

Pudding-stone, 

34 

0 

of  Wales,  origin  of,  322 

Puifendorf, 

131 

g 

o 

Consort,  the,             370 

Pulley,  the. 

63 

•0 

c 
Uj 

Princeps  Senatus,              272 

Pulse  crops. 

68 

^ 

ctf 

Printing  invented,  305  ; 

Pultova,  battle  of. 

398 

2 

OS 

introduced  into  Eng- 

Punic faith. 

269 

C 

s 

land,    138,    326  ;    ma- 

 wars. 

269 

chinery  introduced,      368 

Punica  fides. 

269 

0 

o 

Prior,  Matthew,                  149 

Puranas,  the. 

98 

Prism,  the,                            51 

Puritans,  the, 

344 

V 

►*< 

Prismatic  colors,                  51 

Purple,     the     Roman ; 

6 

.2 

Prisoners  of  war,              202 

raised  to  the. 

282 

0 

^ 

Privy  Council,  the,            194 

Pushkin, 

135 

11 

1 

Pro-consul,                         268 

Pussilla  Roma, 

282 

-d 

V 

< 

rhe  Earth's  Distance  from  the  Sun  is  92,000,000  Miles.— See 

page  15. 

Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


Ixx                   ANALYTICAL    INDEX. Q,    R. 

Puteoli,                        265,  282 

Pyrrhus,                               267 

Pygmalion,                         253 

Pythagoras,                103,  262 

Pyiamids,  the,                   237 

Pythia,  the,                         254 

Pyrenees,  the,                     24 

Pythian  games,          250,  254 

Pyrrha,                               242 

Python,                               250 

Q. 

Quadrumana,  the,              81   Queen     Margaret,      of 

Quadrupeds  ;       digiti- 

Scotland,                        318 

grade  ;  plantigrade,        74 

Mary,  of  England,  329 

Quaestors,                           268 

Mary  II.,  of  Eng- 

Quakers,                            344 

land,                         347,  350 

Quarterly  Review,  the. 

161,  162 

332,  zzz 

Quartidi,  the  day,               90 

Matilda,    of    Eng- 

Quartz,                                 35 

land,                                 319 

Quebec,                                31 

Philippa,  of  Eng- 

 ,  battle  of,                   360 

land,                                324 

Queen   Anne,  of   Eng- 

 Victoria,   of  Eng- 

land,                               351 

land,                                370 

Eleanor,   of    Eng- 

Quevedo,                          124 

land,                                322 

Quincy,  Josiah,                428 

Elizabeth,  of  Eng- 

Quintidi, the  day,               90 

land,                               329 

Quintilian,                          \\\ 

Quirinal  Hill,                   277 

R. 

Rabbinical  literature,        95 

Raeburn,  Sir  Henry,        177 

Rabelais,                             125 

Railways  commenced,     370 

Races  of  man,  82  ;  ex- 

Rain,   how    produced ; 

amples  of  the,  83  ;  cir- 

why heavy  rains  occur 

cumstances  that  tend 

in  warm  as  well  as  in 

to  degrade  the,                84 

cold  weather  ;  use  of, 

Racine,  Jean,             127,  392 

45  ;  why  hilly  coun- 

Radcliffe, Mrs.,                 158 

tries    are    the     most 

Radiata,  the,                        72 

rainy,                                 46 

The   Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815.— See   page    368. 

i 

1 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. R.                       Ixxi 

s. 

Rainbow,  the ;   its  col- 

Reformation in  Ireland,  329 

4> 

ors,  how    produced  ; 

in  Scotland,               332 

\Ji 

a   lunar  ;  when   seen 

Regency,    in    England, 

V 

on  a  small  scale,             51 

the,                                    368 

p 

Raleigh,     Sir     Walter, 

Regent  Murray,                 333 

330  \  his  fate,                  336 

Orleans,                     392 

h 

Ramillies,  battle  of,         351 

Rehoboam,                         228 

to 

Ramsay,  Allan,                  151 

Reichstadt,  Duke  of,        416 

§ 

Randolph,       Earl       of 

Reid,  Dr.  Thomas,            161 

1 

Moray,                             323 

Reign  of  Terror,  the,       409 

"o 

Ranke,                                134 

of    the    hundred 

CO 

Ranz  des  vachos,  the,       193 

days,                                415 

o 

Raphael  ;  his  cartoons,    171 

Reinhard,                            134 

u 

Raptores,  the,  79  ;  birds 

Rembrandt,                         174 

in 

included  in,                      80 

Remus,                               263 

a 

Rasores,  the,  79;  nature 

Renaissance,  the,               122 

of  ;  examples  of,             80 

architecture,              188 

c 

Raumer,  Von,                    134 

Rennie,  John,                     189 

a 

Ravaillac,                            386 

Reptiles  ;     nature    of ; 

D 

Ravenna,  Exarch  of,        289 

orders  of,                           78 

to 
^3 

Ray,  John,                          148 

Reptilia,  the,                         78 

Raynal,                                129 

Republic,  a,                         221 

2 

Realm,  estates  of  the,       222 

Requesens,  General,         395 

Reason,  the  goddess  of,  410 

Restoration  in  England, 

CO 

«3 

Reasoning,  the  Socratic 

the,                                  342 

method  of,                       105 

Rete  mucosum,  the,           84 

C 

Rebellion  of  1715,            356 

Retina     of     the     eye ; 

iJ 

of  1745,                      358 

images  of  objects,  how 

"3 

Red  Republicans,  the,      418 

condensed  on  the,           52 

Red  Sea,  the,                        23 

Retz,  Cardinal  de,            388 

s^ 

,  passage  of,                226 

Revelation,                         232 

Reform,  a,                           221 

Revenons  h.  nos   mou- 

Bills,                          369 

tons,  author  of,              127 

t4 

Reformation,     remark- 

Review, the,                       149 

^^ 

able   fact  concerning 

,  the  Edinburgh,        162 

fi 

the,       ^                           384 

,  first  English,            162 

Reformation  in  England, 

,  the  Monthly,             162 

6 

the  ;  immediate  cause 

,  the  Quarterly,         162 

O 

of    the  ;   leading  feat- 

Revolution, a,                   221 

o 

ures  of  the,  328  ;  the 

in     England    of 

Morning  Star  of  the,    323 

1688,  347;  the  Revo- 

Reformation    in     Ger- 

lution settlement,          349 

o 

many,  the,                      380 

Revolution,  the  French; 

^ 

The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619.— See    page    I45- 


1 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born 

1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 

Ixxii                     ANALYTICAL    INDEX. R. 

chief    causes    of    the 

River  Tigris,              224,  232 

French,  405  ;  in  Paris 

,  the  largest  in  the 

of    1830  ;  the  French 

world,                                 25 

of  1848,                            417 

Rivers  of  Europe,               26 

Revolution   in   Nether- 

 of  Great  Britain,        26 

lands,                               423 

of  Ireland,                   26 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,      176 

of  North  America,     26 

Rhadamanthus,                  255 

Rizzio,  David,                    332 

Rhetoric,                             216 

Roads,  Roman,                  280 

Rhine,  the  river,                  26 

Robert,    first   Duke    of 

Rhinoceros,  the,                  81 

Normandy,                      300 

Rhode  Island,                    345 

Robert  I.  of  Scotland,      323 

Rhodes,  Colossus  of,        261 

II.  of  Scotland,          323 

Rhone,  the  river,                 26 

III.  of  Scotland,        323 

Rhyme  ;  antiquity  of,      10 1 

Roberts,  David,                  177 

Rice  ;     where     largely 

Robertson,     Dr.      Wil- 

used,                                  67 

liam,                                  158 

Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  320 

Robespierre,               407,  409 

II.  of  England,         325 

Rochefoucauld,                  127 

III.  of  England,         325 

Rochelle,     the     strong- 

■  of  Cirencester,          138 

hold   of   the   Hugue- 

Richardson, Samuel,        154 

nots  ;  siege  of,               387 

Richelieu,  Cardinal,         386 

Roche,  Paul  de  la,             174 

Richmond,          North 

Rocks,    in   what   forms 

America,                            31 

found  ;  stratified  ;  un- 

Richter,                               134 

stratified  ;     aqueous  ; 

Ridley,                                 329 

igneous  ;       sediment- 

Rienzi,                                302 

ary,  32  ;  volcanic,  zz  ; 

Right  of  Search,  the,       367 

Silurian  ;  calcareous, 

Rights,  civil,                         83 

34;  siliceous,                    35 

Riot  Act,  the,                    355 

Rocky  Mountains,  the,       24 

River  Alpheus,                  243 

Rodentia,  the,                       80 

Arno,                          267 

Rodney,  Sir  George,        363 

Danube,                      289 

Rogers,  Samuel,                163 

Euphrates          224,  232 

Roland,                                407 

Ilissus,                        257 

Rollin,                                  128 

Nile,                   226,  412 

,  Ledru,                       418 

Pactolus,                    254 

Rollo,                                  300 

Peneus,                       261 

Roman        architecture, 

Rubicon,                    271 

character    of,                 186 

Styx,                   244,  251 

Roman  camps,                   209 

Thames,                     320 

Catholic  disabilities 

Tiber,                262,  264 

removed,                         369 

The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in   1588. — See   page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long.— See    page    302. 


ANAL  YTICAL 

INDEX. R.                     Ixxiii 

Roman  centurion, 

276 

Roman  writers. 

286 

citizenship, 

268 

years,   how   reck- 

     conquests,     how 

oned. 

86 

maintained,  280;  ben- 

Romans, religion  of  the, 

efit  of  the, 

285 

264 ;     country    villas 

Roman  civil  law,  the. 

202 

of,  281  ;  dress  of  the, 

dominions,  extent 

282  ;  favorite  wine  of 

of. 

274 

the,      283  ;      general 

• education. 

287 

character  of  the,  285  ; 

empire,  population 

modern  society,  how 

of,    277  ;    decline    of 

benefited  by  the, 

286 

the,    283  ;    when    di- 

Romans, the,  how  they 

vided,    284  ;    end    of 

divided  the  month. 

89 

the ;     moral     to     be 

Romans    distinguished 

drawn  from  the   fall 

for     literature,    etc.  ; 

of  the, 

285 

summary  of. 

no 

Roman  era,  the. 

85 

Romans,  the,  not  so  dis- 

 Hippocrates,  the. 

113 

tinguished  for  philos- 

 kingdom. 

263 

ophy    and    literature 

legion, 

276 

as  the  Greeks, 

no 

literature,  286  ;  the 

Romance,  origin  of  the 

most  brilliant  period 

word. 

120 

of. 

no 

Romances  of  the  Middle 

Roman   names   and  ar- 

Ages ;  why  so  called. 

120 

rangement      of      the 

Romanus  sum, 

269 

months. 

88 

Rome,  traditionary  date 

Roman    republic,    263, 

of  the  foundation  of. 

267  ;  government    of. 

85;  ancient;  founded 

267  ;  duration  of, 

274 

by  Romulus,  263  ;    a 

Roman  roads, 

280 

maritime  power,  269 ; 

school  of  painting. 

chief    buildings     of  ; 

head  of  the. 

171 

size  and  condition  of, 

Roman  science, 

287 

277  ;    seven   hills   of, 

sculpture,  charac- 

277; taken  by  Alaric, 

ter  of. 

181 

284 ;    the   capital    of 

senate,  under  the 

modern  Italy,     -      28, 

426 

emperors. 

275 

Rome  and  Greece,  na- 

Roman slaves, 

277 

ture  of  the  intercourse 

standards. 

276 

between. 

281 

subjugation      of 

Romulus, 

263 

Greece, 

270 

Augustulus, 

285 

triumvirate. 

273 

Ronsard, 

126 

walls  in  Britain, 

309 

Rope-dancers  ;         how 

Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172, 


M* 

g. 

The    Coliseum    at    Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators.— See    page    278 

CIS 

Ixxiv                      ANALYTICAL     INDEX.        S. 

09 

Hhey     preserve    their 

Rtickert,                               134 

0 

1 

equilibrium,                      61 

Ruisdaal,                             175 

GO 

1 

0) 

3 

Rosa  Bonheur,                   174 

Rule  Britannia,                 193 

1 

w 

Roscius,                               no 

Ruminantia,  the,                 81 

5 

TJ 

Roscommow,  Earl  of,       145 

Rimes,                                 n6 

Rosen,                               ,134 

Runnymede,                       321 

Rose,  Sir  Hugh,                371 

Rupee,  a,                            213 

:3 
0 

Rosetta  stone,  the,             207 

Rupert,  Prince,                  339 

0 

i:  S 

Rosicrucians,  the,             119 

Russell,  Earl,                     167 

u 

t  ^ 

Rossi,                                  425 

,  Lord  William,         346 

> 

1  '2 

Rossini,                               192 

Russia,  2Z  ;  capital  of, 

ctf 

1    X 

Rostra,  the,                        278 

28  ;        Asiatic,       30  ; 

4> 

Rostrum,                            278 

style     of     reckoning 

it: 

o 

Rotiiera,  the,                       75 

the  year  in,  87  ;  his- 

vT 

o 

Roundheads,                      328 

tory  of  commences  ; 

(4 

CO 

:     ^ 

Round  towers,                   209 

succession      to       the 

(J 

1 

Rousseau,                  128,  406 

throne  of,  397  ;   Fin- 

Vi 

'3 

Rowe,                                  150 

land  acquired  by,          401 

.3 

(3 

Royal  Academy,  the,         176 

Russians,                             301 

"3 

Oi 

Scottish  Academy, 

Rust  in  Iron,  cause  of,       42 

w 

the,                                   177 

Rybats   of  a   building. 

Rubens,                              174 

the,                                   190 

0 

H 

Rubicon,     the      river ; 

Rye,                                       67 

>^ 

4> 

passing  the,                    272 

Rye-hous€  Plot,                346 

D 

-d 

§ 

P. 

a 
c3 

s, 

2 

1 

Sabbath,  origin  of,             89 

St.  Andrew,                        121 

0 

o 

Sabines,  legend  of  the,     263 

St.  Andrew's  day,              121 

\ 

!3 

Sacheverell  riots,              354 

St.  Anthony  of  Padua,     121 

w 

CO 

Sackville,  Thomas,           142 

St. the  Great,            121 

Q 

o 

Sacred  canon,  the,              95 

St.  Augustine,            121,  313 

cs 

O 

——history,                       219 

St.   Bartholomew,  mas- 

to 

y 

badducees,                          231 

sacre  of,                          381 

^ 

c3 

Sadoc,                                 231 

St.  Basil,                             121 

: 

S 

CO 

Saemund  the  Wise,           116 

St.  Benedict,               121,  290 

*o 

ft, 

Sagas,  the,                          116 

St.  Columba,                      313 

> 

fj 

Sagittarius,                           20 

St.  David,                            121 

5i 

H  L 

San  Francisco,                   31 

St.  David's  day,                 12  j 

> 

•2 
0 

> 

c 

'aptain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779.— See  page  365. 

00 

& 

Humboldt,  the   Naturalist   and   Geogfrapher,   Died    1859. — See  page    133 

en 

M 

u 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX, S.                       Ixxv 

s 

St.  Denis,                             121 

Salamis,  battle  of,              256 

u 
^ 

00 

1 

St.  Domingo,  31;  island 

Sales,  Francis  de,               126 

QQ 
1 

1 

of.                                      393 

Salic  law,  the,                    370 

1 

h 

0 

St.  Francis  of  Paula,         121 

Salisbury,                              28 

Z 

St.  Genevieve,                    121 

Sallust,                III,  271,  287 

.s 

"2 

St.  George,                         121 

Salmanassar,                       228 

£ 

S 

and   the    Dragon, 

Salt,    made    from    sea- 

1 

1 

story    of,     121  ;    how 

water,                                26 

3 

commemorated,              122 

Salvator  Rosa,                   173 

n 

1 

St.    George   for    merry 

Samaria,                              228 

s 

M 

England,                          122 

Samian  wine,                     261 

g 

St.  George's  channel,          29 

Samos,                                 261 

1 

& 

St.  George's  day,               121 

Samson,                               228 

2 

s 

St.  Germain,  court  of,      352 

Samuel,                                228 

0 

s 

St.  Giles,                             121 

Sand,  George,                    130 

0 

c 

St.  Helena,island  of,  368,416 

Sandstone,                            33 

"S 

St.  Januarius,                      121 

Sanscrit  language,  the,      94 

? 

St.  John,  Henry,                 150 

Sans   peur   et   sans  re- 

St.  Kentigern,                    313 

proche,                             375 

St.  Lawrence,  the  river,      26 

Sappho,                        103,  262 

CO 

0 

c 

St.  Louis,  the  town  of,       31 

Saracens,                             292 

St.  Louis,                            373 

Saracenic  architecture,     187 

X 

(4 

St.  Margaret,                      318 

Sardanapalus,                     233 

:3 

St.  Martin  of  Tours,         121 

Satellites,  14;  what  they 

G 

U 

St.  Mungo,                          313 

are;  their  number,         15 

(U 

U 

V 

St.  Ninian,                          313 

Saturday,  origin  of  the 

4-i 

ftf 

St.  Patrick,                  121,  311 

name,                                 89 

s 

« 

St.  Patrick's  day,               121 

Saturn,  the  planet,  12  ; 

ft> 

s 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in 

color  of,  13;  satellites 

5 

6 

London,                          342 

of,  15  ;  the  god,            246 

•s 

5» 

X 

St.      Petersburg,       28 ; 

Saul,                                    228 

^ 

founded,                          398 

Sauria,  the,                          78 

0 

^ 

St.  Pierre,                            129 

Savonarola,                         422 

•d 

*i 

St.  Salvador  discovered,  306 

Saxe,  Marshal,                   357 

*S 

St.   Sophia,   church   of. 

Saxon     settlements    in 

« 

Constantinople,             304 

North  Britain,               312 

A 

St.    Stephen's     Chapel, 

Saxons,   the,   arrive  in 

(U 

1 

Westminster,  built,       320 

England,                         311 

00 

> 

Saints'  days,                        121 

Scalds,  the,                         301 

^ 

« 

of  the  Middle  Ages,  121 

Scandinavia,                       299 

00 

> 

,  patron,                       121 

Scandinavian  religion,     300 

1 

Saladin,                                298 

Scansores,  the,  79 ;  ex- 

0 

2 

Salamanders,                      119 

amples  of,                        3o 

n 
> 

] 

Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle.— See  page  13. 

00 
CO 

1 

Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65 

P. 

Ixxvi                     ANALYTICAL    INDEX. S. 

Schiller, 

132 

of  the  crowns  of  Eng- 

03 

Scheiling, 

134 

land,  and,  334  ;  treat- 

1 

1 

Schlegel, 

"^ZZ 

ment    of  the   church 

0* 

d 

s 

Schleiermacher, 

134 

of,  by  Charles  L,  338  ; 

t 

Schleswigand  Holstein, 

era  of  persecution  in. 

P« 

% 

401  ;  war  respecting, 

427 

343;  Presbyterianism 

0 

CO 

Scholastics,  the, 

115 

finally  established  in, 

09 

Id 

Schomberg,  Duke  of, 

348 

347  ;  united   to  Eng- 

C 
0 

*C 

Schools  of  painting. 

171 

land,  state  of,   at   the 

*s 

1 

Schwarzerd, 

382 

Union,                             353 

(4 

a. 

Science,  men  eminent  in. 

Scotland,  church  of  (see 

a 

0 

^ 

1760  to  1800, 

161 

Church). 

0 

1 

d 

Scipio, 

270 

Scots,  the,                           312 

I 

•t3 

^milianus, 

270 

Scott,  Sir  Michael,            139 

•S 

^ 

Scirgerefa, 

315 

,  Sir  Walter,               164 

0 

O 

Scone,  the  stone  of. 

322 

Scottish  architecture,        189 

CO 

Q 

>» 

Scorpio,  the  sign. 

20 

Border,  the,                 29 

•d 

§ 

Scotch  school  of  Philo- 

 dialect,                       139 

cd 

o 

sophy,  the, 

161 

law,                             204 

b£ 

c 

Scotland,  its  leading  di- 

 literature,    revival 

0 

.2 

visions  ;    its   islands ; 

of  in  the  i8th  century,  151 

w 

rt 

Its   chief   towns,    29  ; 

Scottish  music,                  193 

^ 

1 

its   lochs,  29  ;  patron 

painter,  the   earli- 

S. 

saint  of,  121;  supreme 

est,                                    176 

I 

*i 

civil    court    in,    204 ; 

painters,      distin- 

to 

Scotland    in    British 

guished,                           177 

0 

•5 

history,  explanation  of 

philosophers,    the 

{3 

ij 

the  long-continued  in- 

more noted,                    161 

V 

dependence    of,  310  ; 

Scottish     poets,    1727- 

0 

A 

-«-• 

origin  of,  312  ;  Chris- 

1760, 151,  152  ;  of  the 

(0 
0> 

c 

tianity  introduced  in- 

secondhalf of  theiSth 

CO 
(0 

'c3 

to,    313  ;    early  mon- 

century,  160  ;  in  the 

a 

c 

archy  of,  318  ;  border 

early  part  of  the  19th 

0 

o 
O 

between  England  and, 

century,                            165 

f^ 

settled;    Cumberland 

Scottish     writers,    lan- 

.a 

'3 

severed     from,     319  ; 

guage    employed    by 

*-> 

•G 

competition    for    the 

the  early,  139  ;  to  the 

Hi 
0 

n 

throne  of,  322  ;  under 

reign   of  James    VI., 

^ 

the  Stuarts,  323  ;  the 

139;     writers,     1727- 

to 

4> 

2 

Reformation  in,  332  ; 

1760,   151  ;   1760-1800, 

(0 

3 

o 

— and    France,     con- 

154-162 ;  of  the  19th 

S 

0 

nection  between,  332  ; 

century,                    162,  168 

0) 

i 

parliament  of     union 

Screw,  the,                     62,  d^ 

z 

■ 

[ulius    Caesar,  a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    in 

The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles. — See  page  47. 


ANAL  YTICAL     INDEX.- 


Ixxvii 


Scripture  history  com- 
mences, 

,  the  canon  of, 

Scriptures  (see  Bible), 

Scudery,  Mademoiselle 
de, 

Sculpture,  how  prac- 
ticed, 78  ;  among  the 
ancients  ;  superiority 
of  Greek,  to  what  as- 
cribed, 179  ;  in  bas- 
relief  ;  in  alto- 
relievo,  180 ;  Roman  ; 
revived  in  Italy, 

Sea,  the  law  of  jurisdic- 
tion over  the. 

Seas,  examples  of, 

Sea-sand,  how  formed, 

Seasons,  change  of  the, 
how  caused. 

Sea-water,  nature  of, 
26  ;  where  it  freezes  ; 
the  ice  of,  not  so  salt 
as  the  water, 

Sea- weeds, 

Seceders, 

Secondary  planets, 

Secret  tribunals. 

Sedimentary  rocks, 

Sedley,  Sir  Charles, 

Seeds  of  plants  (see 
Plants). 

Seine,  the  river, 

Selden,  John, 

Seleucidae, 

Seleucus  Nicanor, 

Semiramis, 

of  the  North,  the, 

Semitic  languages,  the, 

nations, 

Sempach,  battle  of, 

Sempill  of  Beltress, 

Senate,  a, 


224 
95 
95 

126 


181 
27 
34 


45 

66 

201 

15 
299 

32 

145 


26 
144 
240 
240 
233 
399 

94 
224 

378 
152 
222 


Senate,  Roman,  under 
the  emperors, 

Senatus  Populus  que 
Romanus, 

Seneca,  iii, 

Sennacherib, 

Sensation,  the  centre  of, 

Senses,  the, 

Sepoys, 

September,  origin  of 
the  name, 

Septidi,  the  day, 

Septuagint,  the, 

Serfdom, 84,  220;  Anglo- 
Saxon,  316  ;  in  Rus- 
sia abolished. 

Serfs, 

Seven  champions  of 
Christendom,  the, 

wise      men      of 


Greece,  the, 
—    wonders 


of     the 

world,  the, 
Severn,  the  river, 
Servetus, 
Servi,  the, 
Sesostris, 

Seven  years'  war,  the, 
Seventeenth  century  in 

Britain,  character  of, 
Severus  dies  at  York, 
Sevigne,  Madame  de, 
Sextidi,  the  day, 
Shaftesbury,     Earl     of 

(the  third). 
Shannon,  the  river, 
Shakespeare,    William, 

143, 
Shaster,  the, 

Sheffield, 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe, 
Shells,     univalve ;    bi- 
valve, 


275 

277 
287 

233 
84 
84 

371 


90 
96 


401 

121 

102 

114 
26 

zH 

264 

237 

359 

350 

309 

127 

90 


150 
26 


98 

28 

165 
76 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


Ixxviii 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX.- 


Shem,                                  224 

Silver  Age,  the,                242 

Shenstone,  William,         153 

Sinai,  Mount,                     226 

Sheridan,  Richard  Brin- 

Sinking  Fund,  the,           252 

sley,                                 156 

Sirens,  the,                          252 

Sheriff,  origin  of,               315 

Sirius,  the  star,                    14 

Sheriff muir,  battle  of,       356 

Sismondi,                            130 

Sherlock,                              147 

Sisyphus,                             251 

Shetland  Isles,  29  ;  how 

Situation  of  places  on 

obtained  by  Scotland,  324 

the  globe,  how  found 

Shield  in  heraldry,  the,    210 

out ;  how  defined,          24 

Shilling,   origin   of  the 

Siva,               ^                    303 

word,                                212 

Skin,  color   in   the,  an 

Shinar,  Plain  of,                224 

effect      of      circum- 

Ship-money,                       337 

stances;  nature  of  the,     84 

Shiraz,                                  235 

Skinner,  Rev.  John,         152 

Shire,  origin  of,                 315 

Slate,                                     7,7, 

Shooting-stars,                     57 

Slave,  a,                        ^^,  220 

Shrewsbury,  battle  of,      325 

Slavery     abolished     in 

Sibert  of  Essex,                321 

British  possessions,      369 

Sibylline  books,                250 

Slaves,  Roman,                 277 

Sibyls,  the,                          250 

Slavonians,  the,                301 

Sicilian  Vespers,               421 

Smart,  Christopher,          155 

Sicilies,  Kingdom  of  the 

Smelting,                             35 

Two,                                423 

Smith,  Adam,            159,  214 

Siddons,  Mrs.,                    160 

,  Charlotte,                 158 

Sidereal  day,  a,                    92 

,  Horace,                     165 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip,     142,  143 

,  James,                      165 

Sidon,                                  236 

,  Rev.  Sydney,  162,  165 

Siege  of  Alnwick,            318 

SmollettjTobias  George,  153 

of  Friedrickshall,     398 

Smugglers,                         215 

of  Leyden,                 395 

Snow,   what  it   is  ;    its 

use,  45  ;  tops  of  high 

of  Nancy,                   379 

mountains,  why  per- 

 of  Rochelle,              387 

petually  covered  with,    47 

of  Vienna,                 400 

Snow-flakes,                        41 

Silenus,                                248 

Snorri  Sturleson,              116 

Siliceous  rocks,                   35 

Snyders,                              174 

Silk,  a  bad  electric  con- 

Soap,                                     40 

ductor,                               53 

Sobieski,  John,                  399 

Silk-worm,  the,  how  it 

Social  amelioration,         215 

spins,                                  78 

Social  war,  the                  270 

Silurian  rocks  ;  why  so 

Society  for  the  diffusion 

called,                                34 

of  Useful  Knowledge,  168 

Crcesus,   a   King  in   Asia,  renowned  for   Great  Wealth. — See  page   334. 


J? 

V 

Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by  John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305 

ANALYTICAL     INDEX, S.                    Ixxix 

0* 

Society,  the  foundation 

the      Moors     driven 

0 

& 

of  human,                        220 

from,    304  ;    the    In- 

4> 

1 

Society  of  Jesus,  the,        391 

quisition  in,  394  ;  de- 

1; 

2 

Socrates,  262  ;  doctrines 

cline  of,  426  ;  recent 

q 

O 

of  ;  fate  of,                      105 

events  in,                        430 

pci 

eft 

u 
oi 

Socratic  method  of  rea- 

Spanish Armada,  the,       330 

b 

V 

soning,                            105 

literature,                   124 

3 

>• 

Sodor  and  Man,  Bishop 

succession,  war  of 

c 

"* 

of,  why  so  called,          197 

^^y                           35 1)  391 

0 

Soil,   substances  found 

school  of  painting. 

A 

o 

in  the,                                 35 

two  great  masters  of 

^ 

Solar  day,  a,                         92 

the,                                   175 

system,  the,                 12 

Sparta,                                 256 

CO 

Solder,  tinsmith's,               39 

Speaker,  of  the  House 

c 

Solemn      League     and 

of  Commons,                  197 

•0 

s 

o 

Covenant,                        340 

Species,  what  meant  by. 

% 

a 

Solomon,                            228 

72  ;     instance     of     a 

A 

2 

Solon,                          102^  258 

slight    exception     of 

0 

cd 

Somerset,  Protector,        329 

the  rule  of  ;  why  im- 

1 

•d 

§ 

Somerville,  William,        153 

portant    to    preserve 

Somnus,                               248 

pure  each  variety  of,      73 

i 

to 

Sophistry,  origin  of  the 

Specific  gravity,                   <^^ 

term,                                106 

Spectator,  the,                   149 

c3 

Sophists,  the,                     106 

Spenser,  Edmund,             143 

^ 
S 

£ 

Sophocles,                  103,  262 

Spenserian  stanza,  the. 

0 

Sorbon,  Robert,                 125 

loi,  142 

I 

Sorbonne,  the,                    125 

Spiders  ;  legs  of,                78 

(« 

«»4 

Soul,  immortality  of,          84 

Spinning  insects,                78- 

CO 

o 

Sound,   what   it   is  ;  its 

machinery      in- 

^ 

5 

rate  of  speed,  49  ;  how 

vented,                           365 

to 

a 

o 

best  conducted,                50 

Spinoza,                               135 

JU 

H 

South,  Dr.  Robert,            147 

Spires,  diet  of,                   382 

Bl 

Southampton,                       28 

Spirits,  from  what  pre- 

is 

Southern  Cross,  the  con- 

pared,                               67 

•0 

stellation,                         13 

Spirits  of  the  elements,    119 

u 

Southern  Ocean,  the,         23 

Sponge,  what  it  is,-             75 

5 

o 

South-sea  bubble,             357 

Sponges,  where  chiefly 

1 

Southey,  Robert,              163 

found,                               75 

s 

Southwell,                          143 

Spontaneous      produc- 

3 
0 

en 

Spagnoletto,                      175 

tions,     no,    exploded 

e 

to 
3 

Spain,    27  ;    capital    of, 

notions  concerning,        74 

1 

28  ;  the  Moors  in,  293; 

Spore,  a ;  difference  be- 

**- 

I 

Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821. —  See  page  411. 


Ixxx 


ANAL  YTICAL     INDEX. S. 


tween  a  seed  and  a ; 
spores,  how  diffused 
by  nature,  66 

Spottiswood,  John,  141 

S.  P.  Q.  R.,  276 

Sprat,  Dr.  Thomas,  147 

Spring-balance,  a,  57 

tide,  a,  26 

Springs,    37  ;    mineral, 
2,^  ;    chalybeate  ;    fer- 
ruginous, 37  ;  oil,  38 
Spurzheim,                          133 
Stabat  Mater,  the,              191 
Stael,  Madame  de,             129 
Staffa,                                     33 
Stagyrite,  the,                     104 
Staining  glass,  the  art 
^  of,                                      178 
6tamens  of  a  plant,             65 
Standards,  Roman,            276 
Stanfield,                              176 
Stars,  what  they  are,  12  ; 
how        distinguished 
from  planets  ;  fixed  ; 
how   arranged  ;    why 
not  seen  by  day,  13  ; 
the  largest  and  bright- 
est, 14 ;  shooting,             57 
Star-Chamber,  the,            2>2>^ 
States,    autonomy     of ; 

union  of,  222 
General    first   as- 
sembled in  France,        373 
Stationer,  origin  of  the 

term,  98 

Statute  of  Drogheda,       326 

of  Kilkenny,  324 

Steam-engine  perfected,  365 
Steam  navigation  intro- 
duced, 368 
Steele,  Sir  Richard,  149 
Steelyard,  the,  6;^ 
Steen,  Jan,                          175 


Stephen  I.  of  Hungary, 
-,  of  England, 


Stephenson,  Robert, 
Sterling,  what  meant  by; 

origin  of, 
Sterne,  Laurence, 
Stewart,  Dr.  Dugald, 
Stheno, 
Stilling, 
Stillingfleet, 
Stock  Exchange,  the, 
Stockholm, 
Stoical     philosophy, 

nature  of  the. 
Stoics,  the, 
Stonehenge, 
Stones,  rounded,  found 

in  beds  of  rivers,  how 

produced, 
Stone  of  Scone,  the, 
Stowe,  Mrs., 
Strabo,  109, 

Strafford,  Earl  of. 
Strait,  a. 

Strange,  Sir  Robert, 
Stratified    rocks,   32  ; 

names  of. 
Stratus,  the  cloud, 
Strauss, 

Strawberry  Hill, 
Strelitzes,  the, 
Struensee, 
Stuart,  Elizabeth,  335  ; 

death  of, 
,     Lady     Arabella, 

dynasty,       com 


377 
320 
218 

211 

157 
161 

253 
134 
147 
213 
28 

107 
107 
208 


mencement  of  the, 
Stuart  line  extinct, 
Styx,  the,  244, 

Suck-giving  animals. 
Suckling,  Sir  John, 
Sue,  Eugene, 


34 
322 
169 
262 

24 
185 

Z3 
46 

134 

157 
398 
402 

342 

335 

323 
358 

251 
78 

143 
130 


"  Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the   Ancients. — See    page    ii8 

ANALYTICAL     INDEX. -T.                      Ixxxl 

V 

Suez,                                    226 

Supporters  in  heraldry,  210 

V 

Sulla,                                    271 

Surgeon,   origin  of  the 

0 
CO 

1 

Sullan  proscriptions,         271 

word,                                217 

1 

M 
CO 

Sully,                            126,  385 

Surgery,                                217 

to 

* 

Sun,  the   centre   of  the 

Surrey,  Earl  of,                   138 

C 

solar  system,  12  ;  its 

Suwaroff,     Count  ;     la- 

0 

4> 

size,  15  ;  explanation 

conic  dispatch  of,          399 

s 

•S 

of  its  apparent  rising 

Suzerain,                              295 

J3 

£ 

and    setting,    16  ;    in 

Sweden,  history  of,  397  ; 

V 

the      meridian,      17  ; 

ceases   to   be   one   of 

w 

J3 

eclipse    of   the,   how 

the  great   powers   of 

to 

H 

caused ;            annular 

Europe,                            398 

.2 

4>> 

(8 

eclipse    of    the,     22  ; 

Sweden   and   Norway  ; 

0 

^5 

s 

3 

the    source  of    light. 

capital  of,                          28 

50  ;  why  in  some  fine 

Sweyn,                                 314 

s 

n 

climates    it    becomes 

Swift,  Jonathan,                 149 

1 

oo 

suddenly  cold    when 

Swiss  Confederation,       378 

§ 

h 

g 

the  sun  sets,                      51 

Switzerland,  27  ;  capital 

Sunday,   origin   of    the 

of,  28 ;  in  the  Middle 

g 

s 

name,                                 89 

Ages;  Roman  name  of,  37; 

% 

CO 

Sun-dials,                              92 

Sydney,  Algernon,           34^ 

- 

o 

Suns,                                       12 

Sylphs,                                 ii« 

0 

Superior,  lake,                    26 

Syria  ;  for  what  remark- 

o 

!S 
'3 

Superstition,                      119 

able,                                  3c 

0 

bo 
< 

a 
n 

T. 

13 

Tacitus,                       113,  287 

Tarquin,                             263 

CO 

Tadmor,                               228 

Tarshish,                              236 

«r 

6 

Talleyrand,                 407,  417 

Tartarus,                              243 

t 

*3 

4) 

Talmud,  the,                        95 

Tartary,                                 30 

j3 

1 

Talmudists,                           95 

Tartessus,                            236 

g 

« 

Tamerlane,                          303 

Tasmania,              -               23 

»-i 

n 

Tannahill,  Robert,            166 

Tasso,  Torquato,               123 

^ 

Tantalus,                             256 

Tassoni,                               123 

^ 

o 

43 

Tara,                                    311 

Tatler,  the,                          149 

r! 

^ 

Tarantula,  the,                     78 

Taurus,                                  20 

bo 

d 

Targum,  the,                        95 

Tay,  the  river,                       26 

< 

Tarpeia,                               278 

Taylor,  Jeremy,                 144 

t3 

O 
C 

Tarpeian  Rock,                 278 

,  John,                          145 

1 

rhe    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000     Square    Miles.— See    page   23. 

The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  i8i. 


Ixxxii                    ANALYTICAL    INDEX.        T. 

Teak,  the,                             70 

Thermidor,  the  month,      90 

Telemachus,                        244 

Thermometer,          the ; 

Telescope,  the,                     52 

scales  of,                           43 

Tell,  William  ;  and  the 

Thermopylae,  Pass  of,      259 

apple  ;  legend  of,          378 

Theseus,                    249,    250 

Telford,  Thomas,              218 

Thespis,                              100 

Tempe,  Vale  of,         261,  282 

Thessaly,                            256 

Temperate  zones ;  why 

Thetis,                        244,  252 

of  moderate  tempera- 

Thiers,                       130,  418 

ture,                                   19 

Thirty  Years'  War,          384 

Temple  of  Concord,         278 

Thomas  ^  Kempis,            116 

Temple    of    Jerusalem, 

Aquinas,                     115 

built ;  destroyed,  228,  230 

Thomson,  James,.              152 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Cap- 

— — ,  Rev.  John,                177 

itolinus,                            278 

Thorwaldsen,  Bertel,        182 

Temple,  Sir  William,        147 

Thothmes  III.,                   236 

Tendon  Achilles,  the,       244 

Thrace,                                2S4 

Teniers,      David,      the 

Thralls,                                316 

younger,                          174 

Thrush,                                  80 

Tennant,  William,             166 

Thucydides,               107,  262 

Tennyson,  Alfred,             167 

Thunder,                               54 

Terburgh,                            175 

Thursday,  origin  of  the 

Terence,                               no 

name,                                  89 

Tereus,               ~                  253 

Tiber,  the  river,         262,  264 

Terpsichore,                       251 

Tiberius,                              275 

Tertullian,                           115 

Tibullus,                             112 

Test    and    Corporation 

Tickell,                               150 

acts  abolished,               369 

Tide,  a  neap  ;  a  spring. 

Thackeray,  W.  M.,             166 

26  ;  a   sea   noted  for 

Thales,                                102 

very  little,                         27 

Thalia,                                 251 

Tides,    nature   of    the ; 

Thames,  the  river,       26,  320 

causes  of  the,                   26 

Thanes,                                316 

Tieck,                                  134 

Thaumaturgist,  a,              121 

Tiers  ^tat,  the,                   374 

Thebans,  the,                     260 

Tigris,  the  river,       224,  232 

Thebes,  in  Egypt,     236,  237 

Tillotson,                            147 

Themistocles,                    259 

Tilly,  Count,                      384 

Theocracy,  a,             222,   227 

Timber  trees,                       70 

Theocritus,                 108,  262 

Time,  divisions  of,  85  ; 

Theodoric  the  Great,        288 

mean,                                 92 

Theodosius  the  Great,     288 

Timur  the  Tartar  ;  sub- 

Theophrastus,                    106 

dues  India,                      303 

Therapeutics,                    217 

Tinctures  in  heraldry,      210 

Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


•8 

If 

Ambrosia,    in    Mythology,  was   the   Food    of  the   Grods. — See  page   248 

ANALYTICAL     INDEX. ^T.                   Ixxxiii 

(0 
0) 

Tinsmiths'  solder,               39 

Treaty  of  Vienna,     416,  423 

1 

Tintoretto,                           172 

Trees,    evergreen  ;    de- 

09 

1 

I 

(0 

Tisiphone,                           250 

ciduous  ; exogenous ; 

1 

a 

Titans,  the,                          245 

endogenous  ;     fruit  ; 

i 

a 

Tithe,                                    227 

valuable   for   timber. 

ii 

Titian,                                  172 

69  ;  valuable  for  gen- 

:s 

Titus,  230,  275  ;  arch  in 

eral     purposes  ;     for 

60 

honor  of,                         281 

their  bark  ;  the  tallest 

0 

U 

Tivoli,                                  282 

known,    70 ;    of    lib- 

\* 

•S 

Toads,    early  condition 

erty,                                  408 

\ 

OS 

of,                                        79 

Trial  by  jury,             205,  315 

s, 

5 

Tobacco    first   brought 

by  ordeal,                   315 

(U 

!o 

to  England,                     330 

Tribes  of    Israel,    225  ; 

5 

Tocqueville,  De,                130 

the  lost,                           229 

Toga,  the  Roman,             282 

Tribunals,  secret,              299 

bo 

c 

o 

Torcy,                                   392 

Tribunes,  the,                    267 

s 

rT 

Tories,  the,                          349 

Tribute  to  Rome,              280 

S) 

Tornadoes,                            49 

Tricolor  flag,                      407 

w 
0 

Toronto,                                 31 

Tridi,  the  day,                      90 

!> 

Torricelli,                            124 

Tritons,  the,                        252 

CO 

C 

CO 

Torrid   zone ;    why  the 

Triumvirate,  the  Roman,  273 

-a 

warmest  region,               19 

Trojan  war,                         243 

l5 

Torture,  judicial,               345 

Trollope,  Anthony,           166 

43 
0 

Tournaments,                     299 

,  Mrs.,                           166 

V 

G 

Toussaint-Louverture,     413 

Tromp,  Van,                       341 

CO 

•  iH 

Towers,  round,                  209 

Tropic  of  Cancer,               19 

V 

CO 

2 

Tower  of  London,  built,  318 

Capricorn,                    19 

G 
"< 

.2 

Trade,  contraband;  free; 

Troubadours,  the,              301 

hi 

•-1 

protection  in,                  215 

Troy,                                    243 

8 

t« 

Trade-winds,                        49 

Tubers,68  ;  examples  of,     ()Z 

0^ 

•d 

Trafalgar,  battle  of,          366 

Tudor   dynasty,   begin- 

M 

Tragedy,  100;  the  father 

ning  of,                            326 

CO 

^ 
8 

of,                                      103 

Tuesday,  origin  of  the 

3 

o 

Trajan,                          275,  283 

name,                                  89 

Transcendentalism,           132 

Turenne,  Marshal,   385,  388 

8 

1 

Transmigration  of  souls, 

Turgot,                    '            405 

« 

103  ;    author    of    the 

Turkey ;  capital  of,  28  ; 

Oh 

1 

doctrine  of,                      103 

Asiatic,                              30 

3 

3 

Trapassi,                              124 

Turks,  the,  297  ;  besiege 

m 

.£3 

Treaty,  the  Methuen,        426 

Vienna,                            400 

(<S 

S 

of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  359 

Turks  defeated  by  Rus- 

*« 

of  Amiens,                 366 

sians,  1878,                     431 

0 

« 

Utrecht.                     354 

Turner,                                176 

V 

X! 

ji 

H 

H 

Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230 

The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12. — See  page   242. 


xXXXlV 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX.- 


-U. 


Tuscany, 

Tusci,  262, 

Tusculan  disputations, 

Tusculum, 

Tutelary  gods, 

Tweed,  the  river, 

Twilight, 

Tyche, 


267 
267 
282 
282 

254 
26 

51 
252 


Tyler,  Wat, 

Tympanum  of  a  build- 
ing, the, 
Tyndale,  William, 
Tyne,  the  river. 
Tyrants,  the  Greek, 
Tyre, 
Tyrrell,  Sir  W., 


u. 


Uhland, 

Ultima  Thule, 

Ultimus  Romanorum, 

Ulysses, 

Undines, 

Union,  a  federal, 

of  States,  a, 

■ of     English    and 

Scottish  crowns,  334  ; 
of  England  and  Scot- 
land, mutual  advan- 
tages of  the,  353  ;  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, 

Union  Jack,  the,        353, 

United  Kingdom,  an- 
nual income  of  ;  na- 
tional debt  of,  372  ; 
its  progress  since  the 
Union  ;  causes  of  its 
prosperity. 

United  Presbyterians, 

• Provinces,  the, 

States  of  America ; 


134 
275 
273 
244 
119 
222 
222 


Z66 
367 


373 
201 

396 


de- 


ples  of. 
University,  a,   216 

grees  in  a, 
Universities  instituted. 
University    of    Leyden 

founded, 

Paris, 

Presburg, 


Unstratified  rocks,  gen- 
eral character  of, 
Urania, 
Uranus, 

the  planet. 


Ursa  Major,  the  constel- 
lation, 

Utopian,  origin  of  the 
term, 

Utrecht,  Treaty  of, 


325 

190 
96 
26 
258 
239 
319 


seat  of  government  ol, 
31  ;  when  acknowl- 
edged, 363,  428  ;  flag 
of  ;  government  of  ; 
first  president  of, 
Univalve  shells  ;  exam- 


42a 

76 

218 
305 

396 

305 
377 

32 
251 
245 

12 

13 
354 


The    Bastile   was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


ffi 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. ^V.                    Ixxxl 

V. 

Vale  of  Tempe,                 261 

Venice,  a  free  city,  296  ; 

Valhalla,                              300 

origin  of  ;  Doge  of,      421 

Valleys,                                   24 

Ventose,  the  month,           9c 

Valois,  House  of,              285 

Venus,                         244,  247 

Vandals,                               284 

de  Medici,  the,          181 

Vanbrugh,                            150 

the  planet,!  2;  color 

Van  der  Palm,                    135 

of,                                       13 

deVelde,                     175 

Vergniaud,                          407 

Dyck,  Anthony,        174 

Vernets,  the,                       173 

Lennep,                       135 

Veronese,  Paul,                 172 

Varro,                                    no 

Verse,  blank,                      100 

Vassals,                                295 

Vertebrata,  72,  78  ;  how 

Vattel,                                   201 

classified,                          78 

Vauban,                        128,  392 

Vespasian,                          275 

Vaudois,  the,                      380 

Vespertilio,                          81 

Vedas,  the,                             98 

Vespucci,  Amerigo,    31,  307 

Vegetable  creation,            64 

Vesta,                          246,  247 

(See  Plants,  Trees.) 

Vesuvius,      cities      de- 

Vegetable kingdom,            65 

stroyed  by,                     282 

(See  Plants,  Trees.) 

Mount,                         37 

Vegetables  most  directly 

Veturia,                               266 

serviceable  to  man,          67 

Victor  Emmanuel,            426 

Vehicles,  why  so  easily 

Victoria,      Queen       of 

upset    when     loaded 

England,  marriage  of,  370 

high,                                  61 

Vienna,                                  28 

Vehm  gerichte,                  299 

besieged  by  Turks, 

Velasquez,                           175 

400  ;      congress      of, 

Velde,  Van  de,                   175 

416  ;  treaty  of,       416,  423 

Velites,                                276 

Vikings,                               300 

Vendemiaire, the  month,     90 

Villain,  origin  of,             317 

Venetian     government. 

Villeins,                               317 

ancient,                           421 

Villenage,                            317 

republic,  termina- 

Viminal Hill,                      277 

tion  of,                            421 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da,          171 

Venetian      school       of 

Vine  ;  country  of  the,       69 

painting,          leading 

Virgil,         112,  282,  283,  287 

painters  of  the,               172 

Virginia,                              330 

Veni,  vidi,  vici,                  272 

Virg^o,  the  sign,                    20 

The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian    Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


Ixxxvi                 ANALYTICAL    INDEX. ^W. 

Vishnu,                                  303 

where    most    numer- 

Vision, the  principle  of,    52 

ous  ;     in     the      sea  ; 

Visigoths,                             284 

extinct,                                37 

Vis  medicatrix  naturae,    218 

Volga,  the  river,                  26 

Vitellianus,                          310 

Volscians,                            262 

Vitellus,                               275 

Voltaire,              128,  403,  406 

Vitrifaction,                          41 

Volume,   origin  of   the 

Vitruvius,                    112,  186 

word,                                  97 

Viviparous  animals,            73 

Vondel,                                135 

Volcanic  islands,                 37 

Von  Raumer,                     134 

rocks,                            2iZ 

Vortigern,                           311 

Volcano,  origin  of   the 

Vulcan,                  37,  244,  247 

term,                                   37 

Vulgate,  the                         96 

Volcanoes,   their    num- 

Vultures,  peculiar  fac- 

ber,  36  ;  in  Europe  ; 

ulty  of,                              71 

w. 

Wade,                                  356 

War,  Danish  and   Ger- 

Wagner,                             134 

man,                                427 

Wagram,  battle  of,           414 

,  Franco-German,     430 

Waldenses,  the,                  380 

,  Franco-Italian,        425 

Waldus,  Peter,                   380 

,  French,  the  great, 

Wales;  its  general  char- 

368, 408 

acter,                                  28 

in  La  Vendee,           410 

,  patron  saint  of,       121 

,  Jugurthine,               270 

,  conquered  by  Ed- 

 of  Liberation,           415 

ward    I.  ;    origin     of 

of     the     Austrian 

Prince  of,                         322 

Succession,                     404 

Wallace,  William,             323 

of  the  Spanish  Suc- 

Wallenstein,                      384 

cession,                   351,  391 

Waller,  Edmund,               145 

,  Peloponnesian,        260 

Walpole,  Horace,              157 

,  Peninsular,              367 

■ ,  Sir  Robert,                356 

,  Punic,                        269 

Waltham,                             322 

of  Russia  and  Tur- 

Walton, Izaak,                   146 

key,  1877,                        430 

War,  American,         363,  367 

,  Seven  Years',           359 

,  Cimbric,                    270 

,  social,                        270 

,  Civil,  in  England,  339 

,  Thirty  Years',          384 

,  Crimean,                   7^1 

,  Trojan,                      243 

The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


PI 
en 

(0 

The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was 

Fought   June    18,    1815 — See   page    368 

i 

ANALYTICAL    INDEX. ^W.                Ixxxvii 

V 

Warbeck,  Perkin, 

227 

Watt,  James,              i6t,  365 

o 

War,     contraband     of ; 

Watteau,  173;  after,         174 

1 

1. 

prisoners  of, 

202 

Watts,  Dr.  Isaac,               152 

1 

6 

Ji 

Ward,  the  painter, 

176 

Wax,  a  bad  electric  con- 

u 

e 

Wars  in  Gaul,  Caesar's, 

271 

ductor,                               53 

(0 

ii; 

of  the  Fronde, 

388 

Weapons,  stone,  copper 

'm 

< of  the  Guelfs  and 

and  iron,                           207 

< 

Ghibellines, 

305 

Weber,                                 191 

"cS 

o 

s 

o 

of  the  Roses, 

326 

Webster,  Dr.  Noah,          169 

0 

Warton,  Thomas, 

155 

Wedge,  the,                    62,  (i2> 

0 

J2 

Washington,       George, 

Wedgewood,  Josiah,         183 

c« 

s 

Ui 

362, 

428 

Wednesday,    origin    of 

O 

,  city  of, 

31 

name,                                  89 

Water,    extent   of    the ; 

Week,  origin  of  English 

3 

2 

w 

how   divided,    23  ;    at 

names  of  the  days  of 

Xi 
*-• 

u 
^ 

what     temperature 

the                                       Z^ 

CO 

most    dense ;    expan- 

(See Days.) 

0 

fi 

sion   of,    exemplified. 

Weeks,    substitute    for 

ft 

44  ;    temperature     at 

French  revolutionary 

D 

which   it   boils^  how 
affected      by     atmos- 

calendar,                           90 

.bo 

•a 

Weight,                                 57 

ca 

a 

CO 

pheric  pressure  ;  heat 

Wellesley,    Sir  Arthur, 

S 

W 

at   which   it   boils   at 

367,  z^^,  371 

tC 

the     top     of      Mont 

Wellington,    Duke    of. 

'♦J 

5^ 

Blanc  ;  why   it   boils 

367,  l^^ 

a 

c 

at  a  lower  heat  at  the 

Wellingtonia,  gigantea. 

B 

top  of  a  high  hill,  48  ; 

the,                                     70 

0 

0 

■*-> 

how   affected   by  the 

Welsh,  the,                        512 

Q 

3 

attraction  of  gravita- 

Werner,                               ^  62 

u 

tion,    58  ;    how    sup- 

Wernerian theory,             162 

0) 

plied  to  towns;  height 

Wesley,  John,                     357 

0 

"rt 

to  which  it  will  rise  ; 

West,  Benjamin,                 176 

<u 

CO 

2 

pressure  of,  on  what 

West   Indies,   30 ;    why 

sx 

(U 

it  depends,  58  ;  buoy- 

so  called,   306 ;  what 

^ 

rt 

ant  power  of,  on  what 

meant  by  the ;  situa- 

0 

.a 

it  depends. 

59 

tion  of  the,    '                   31 

^ 
"d 

c« 

(See  Sea-water.) 

Western  empire,                284 

> 

s 

Waterford, 

29 

Western  Isles,                      29 

<o 

o 

Water-pump, 

47 

Westminster,    St.     Ste- 

'0 

ffl 

CO 

0 

Water-spouts, 

49 

phen's  Chapel,  built,    320 

4) 

Waterloo,  battle  of,  368, 

410 

Abbey  built,              321 

tA 
^ 

§• 

Watson,  Dr.  Richard, 

158 

assembly    of    di- 

m 
0 

Watling  street, 

310       vines,                               339 

c4 

._! 

rhe    First    English    Newspaper 

was    Printed    in    1619, — See    page    145, 

William     Shakspeare    was     B 

orn 

1564;      Died     1616.  —  See     page     143. 

V 
P. 

Ixxxviii                AJVALIT/CAL    INDEX. W. 

8 

Westminster    Chair    of 

Wine,      Samian,      261  ; 

0} 

State, 

322 

Falernian, 

283 

Hall  built, 

319 

of  the  Romans, 

283 

0 

Westphalia,  Peace  of. 

385 

Wishart,  George, 

332 

Wetting,  meaning  of. 

59 

Witchcraft, 

344 

CO 

Wheat  ;    principal    use 

Witch  finders, 

344 

of, 

67 

Witenagemote, 

315 

c 

Wheel  and  axle,  62  ;  ex- 

Woden, 

300 

w 

amples  of, 

^Z 

Wolcot,  Dr.  John, 

155 

ei 

Whigs, 

345 

Wolf,  the  philologist. 

134 

C 

Whirlpools, 

27 

Wolfe,  General, 

360 

White    garments,    why 

Wolsey,  Cardinal, 

328 

worn    in    hot    coun- 

Wonders of  the  world, 

s 

tries, 

43 

the  seven, 

114 

White,  Henry  Kirke, 

165 

Wood-engraving, 

114 

cf 

Wickliffe,  John,         138, 

325 

Wool,    a    bad    electric 

Wight,  Isle  of, 

28 

conductor. 

53 

0 

Wilberforce,  William, 

158 

Woolen    garments     do 

Wilkes,    John;    Wilkes 

not  give  warmth. 

4i 

ttf 

and  liberty,  cry  of. 

361 

Woolsack,  the. 

19? 

P4 

Wilkie,  Sir  David, 

197 

Worcester,  battle  of. 

34' 

« 

Wilkins,  Dr.  John, 

147 

Words      employed     in 

A 

William  I.  of  England, 

speaking       English  ; 

rt 

316- 

-318 

employed  in  writing 

Ih 

n.,  or   Rufus,   of 

English ;     from     the 

< 

England, 

319 

Anglo  -  Saxon       and 

III.  of  England, 

347 

Latin,      having      the 

IV.   of    England, 

same  meaning;  exam- 

•a 

death. 

369 

ples       of ;       writers 

o 

I.  of  Nassau, 

395 

noted  for  the  profuse 

^ 

^ 

and  Mary  of  En- 

use of,  136  ;  effect  of 

*J 

gland, 

347 

their  use  in    compo- 

*« 

the  Conqueror, 

316 

sition,    137  ;     in    the 

> 

2 

,  Lion     of      Scot- 

English       language. 

land, 

319 

number  of,  136  ;   the 

*; 

the  Silent, 

395 

derivation  of  ;  where 

Williams,  Roger, 

345 

treated  of. 

MV 

J 

Wilson,  Alexander, 

161 

Worms,  Diet  of, 

J82 

15 

,  John, 

166 

Wordsworth,  William, 

163 

5 

Winchester, 

28 

World,  largest  river  in 

•d 

Winckleman, 

134 

the,    25  ;    population 

1 

Windows,  moisture  on 

of  the,  32  ;  the  New  ; 

0 

inside,  how  cai  ised, 

44 

its     discoverers,    31  ; 

The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long. — See    page    302. 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX, X,    Y,    Z. 


Ixxxix 


seven      wonders    of, 
114;  languages  of,         93 
{See  Earth) 
Wotten,  Sir  Henry,         142 


Wouvermans,  175 

Wren,  Christopher,  189,  342 

Wyatt,  Sir  Thomas,  138 

Wyntoun,  Andrew,  139 


X. 


Xenophon,         105,  108,  262  I  Xerxes, 
Xenophanes,  107 1 


235 


Y. 


Yankee  Doodle, 

Year,  a  ;  defined;  solar ; 
Egyptian  ;  Greek, 
85;  Roman,  Zd  ;  leap- 
year  ;  civil,  87  ;  when 
begun  by  ancients ; 
New  Year's  day, 


Zedekiah, 

Zendavesta, 

Zend  language, 

Zeno, 

Zero, 

Zeus, 

Zipporah, 

Zodiac,  signs,  20 


193 


37 


York,  28 

and     Lancaster, 

Houses,  326;  united,    32} 
York,  Cardinal,  358 

,  Duke  of,  326 

,  old  name  of,  309 


229 

98 

98 

107, 

262 

43 

241, 

247 

226 

eof, 

21 

Zollverein,  the, 
Zones,  the, 
Zoology, 
Zoophytes, 
Zoroaster, 

,  religion  of, 

Zschokke, 
Zwingli, 


427 

19 
70 

75 

98,  235 

235 

134 

383 


THE  END  OF  INDEX. 


or  THE 

VNrVERS^TY 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


Humboldt,  the   Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See  page    133. 


carleton's 

Household  Encyclopedia 

OF 

GENERAL  'INFORMATION. 


ASTRONOMY. 


1.  Sfate  the  origin  or  Great  First  Cause  of  all  things. — God, 
the  Creator  and  Preserver,  by  whose  good  Providence  we  live, 
dnd  move,  and  have  our  being. 

2.  What  is  the  terin  ordinarily  efnployed  to  signify  the  Creator 
and  His  works  ? — A  common  expression  is  Nature ;  we  also 
speak  of  the  Laws  of  Nature. 

3.  How  can  we  learn  what  are  the  Laws  of  Nature? — By 
studying  various  branches  of  science,  such  as  Astronomy, 
Natural  Philosophy,  Botany,  Zoology,  Chemistry,  and  the 
like. 

4.  What  does  astronomy  teach? — The  nature  and  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  including  our  Earth. 

5.  Is  that  an  ancient  science? — Yes  ;  but  it  has  been  greatly 
improved  in  modern  times. 

6.  What  were  the  notions  generally  entertained  among  ancient 
nations  respecting  the  heavenly  bodies  ?—KiiC\QiiWy  it  was  be- 
ll 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13, 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist. — See  page  65. 


O 


12 


ASTRONOMY. 


Solar  System. 

lieved  that  the  earth  was  a  fixed  body,  around  which  th^ 
sun,  planets,  and  stars  revolved  at  different  distances. 

7.  What  has  been  found  to  be  the  true  explanation  ? — That 
the  sun  is  a  central  body,  round  which  the  earth  and  other 
planets  revolve,  the  whole  forming  the  Solar  System. 

8.  How  7nany planets  are  there? — More  than  a  hundred  ;  the 
principal  ones  are  eight  in  number— namely.  Mercury,  Venus 
the  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune. 

9.  What  are  the  planets? — Like  the  earth,  they  are  all 
thought  to  be  worlds,  deriving  light  and  heat  from  the  sun. 

10.  Are  the  eight  principal  planets  all  of  one  size? — No  ;  they 
greatly  differ  in  size— Jupiter  is  the  largest. 

1 1 .  Are  the  stars  in  our  solar  system  ? — No  ;  they  are  situated 
far  beyond  it. 

12.  What  are  the  stars  ?—l!hQ  stars  are  suns,  at  an  incon- 
ceivable distance  from  the  earth,  and  are  believed  to  have 
planets  revolving  round  them. 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47, 


00 
ASTRONOMY.  ^X  & 


13.  How  do  we  know  a  planet  from  a  star? — The  planets  « 
shine  with  a  steady  lustre,  while  the  stars  twinkle.                              ^ 

14.  Mention  another  distinction. — The  planets  are  seen  to  P 
change  their  places  among  the  other  heavenly  bodies,  but  the  ^ 
stars  have  seemingly  each  a  fixed  place  in  the  heavens,  and 
are  accordingly  called  fixed  stars. 

15.  Is  it  not  usual  to  call  the  planets  stars? — In  a  general  or 
wide  sense,  all  the  smaller  heavenly  bodies  are  called  stars. 

16.  Give  an  exajnple. — Venus  is  spoken  of  as  a  morning  or 
evening  star,  according  to  the  time  of  its  appearance  ;  and 
the  same  is  said  of  Jupiter. 

17.  Are  the  planets  distinguishable  by  any  particular  color  ? — . 
Venus  is  a  pure  sparkling  white;  Mercury,  a  dullish  blue; 
Saturn,  a  reddish  tinge  ;  Mars,  a  fiery  red ;  Jupiter,  white. 
The  most  brilliant  of  the  whole  are  Venus  and  Jupiter. 

18.  Why  do  we  not  see  the  stars  during  the  day? — Because 
they  are  lost  in  the  blaze  of  sunlight. 

19.  How  are  the  stars  arranged? — For  convenience  of  de- 
scription, astronomers  group  them  in  constellations. 

20.  Mention  a  well-known  constellation. — The  cluster  of  star^ 
called  Ursa  Major,  or  the  Great  Bear,  but  which  is  familiarly 
known  as  the  plough. 

21.  Where  is  the  constellation  Ursa  Major  seen? — In  the 
northern  part  of  the  heavens. 

22.  Mention  another  constellation. — There  is  one  called  Orion, 
from  a  fabulous  hero  of  antiquity  ;  three  stars  in  a  straight 
line  in  this  constellation  are  called  Orion's  Belt. 

23.  Is  there  any  other  noted  constellation? — One,  consisting  of 
four  stars,  is  called  the  Southern  Cross,  but  it  is  not  seen  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  world. 

24.  How  can  we  learn  the  names  and  situations  of-  the  constel- 
lations?— By  studying  celestial  globes  and  maps  on  which 
they  are  pictured. 

25.  There  is  a  star  called  the  North  or  Pole  Star  ;  how  do  we 
know  it? — The  North  Star  is  situated  nearly  due  north,  and 
is  nearly  in  line  with  two  stars  in  the  Great  Bear  or  Plough, 
usually  called  the  Pointers. 

I   A 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation    of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


14 


ASTRONOMY. 


26.  Of  what  service  is  the  north  star? — At  night  it  is  useful 
in  guiding  travellers  and  mariners,  by  showing  them  the 
northerly  direction. 

27.  Which  is  the  largest  and  brightest  of  all  the  stars  ? — SiriuS' 
otherwise  called  Canicula,  or  the  Dog-star. 

28.  Where  is  Sirius  situated? — In  the  constellation  Canis 
Major,  or  the  great  dog,  below  the  feet  of  Orion. 

29.  What  was  at  one  time  believed  respecting  the  Dog-star  ? — 
That  it  caused  particularly  hot  weather  for  a  number  of  days 
in  summer,  which,  from  that  circumstance,  were  called  the 
Dog-days. 

30.  Is  that  belief  exploded? — Entirely  so.  People  yet  speak 
familiarly  of  the  dog-days ;  but  it  is  now  known  that 
though  the  star  appears  in  summer,  it  has  no  influence  on  the 
weather. 

^i.  A  broad  white  streak  is  seen  in  the  sky  at  night ;  what  is 
it  called?  — It  is  called  the  Galaxy,  or  Milky-way. 

32.  Of  what  does  it  consist? — The  Milky-way  is  composed 
jf  stars,  but  at  so  remote  a  distance  that  they  appear  only  as 
a  luminous  haze  in  the  firmament. 

33.  What  is  meant  by  firmament? — It  is  a  term  signifying 
the  vast  expanse  of  sky  visible  from  the  earth. 

34.  Is  there  any  other  phrase  employed ?—Yq%  ;  we  say  "  the 
canopy  of  heaven,"  from  its  resemblance  to  a  great  rounded 
canopy  overhead. 

35.  What  is  the  color  of  the  firmament? — In  clear  weather 
it  appears  to  be  blue ;  but  the  blueness  is  chiefly  an  effect  of 
vapor  in  the  air;  for  the  drier  the  air  is,  the  blue  is  always 
the  darker;  and,  in  very  dry  climates,  and  on  the  tops  of  high 
mountains,  it  becomes  almost  black. 

36.  What  does  the  solar  syste7n  include  besides  the  planets? — • 
It  includes  comets,  and  also  satellites. 

37.  What  is  the  appearance  of  comets? — A  comet  usually 
resembles  a  star  with  a  long  streaming  tail. 

38.  Are  there  many  comets?  —There  are  many  hundreds,  but 
they  are  seldom  seen  from  the  earth. 

39.  What  is  the  motion  of  comets? — They  travel  in  all  direo* 


Croesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  W^ealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


ASTRONOMY.  jc 

tions;  sometimes  approaching  the   sun,    and  at  other  times 
going  far  into  space. 

40.  What  is  their  nature? — They  are  generally  composed  ol 
a  light  matter,  through  which  the  stars  can  be  seen. 

41.  When  comets  appear,  do  they  injuriously  affect  the  ea7-thf 
— They  are  not  found  to  do  any  injury,  and  are  believed  to 
fulfil  some  useful  purpose  in  creation. 


A  Comet. 

42.  What  are  satellites?— T^x^Y  2lXQ  bodies  attending  on  01 
revolving  round  planets;  they  are  sometimes  secondary  planets. 

43.  Are  there  matiy  satellites? — Our  earth  has  one.  Mars 
nas  two  (discovered  in  1877),  Jupiter  has  four,  Saturn  eight, 
Uranus  four,  and  Neptune  has  one. 

44.  What  do  we  call  our  satellite  ? — The  Moon. 

45.  Is  7iot  the  sun,  as  a  central  body,  very  much  larger  than 
any  of  the  planets? — Yes;  very  much  larger.  It  is  one 
million  four  hundred  thousand  times  greater  than  the 
earth. 

46.  What  is  the  size  of  the  earth  ? — Its  diamete r  at  t  he  equator 
is  7,925  miles,  and  its  circumference  or  girth  is  24,900  miles. 

47.  What  is  the  earth's  distance  from  the  sun? — Nearly 
ninety-two  millions  of  miles. 

48.  What  is  the  size  of  the  moon? — Its  diameter  is  only  2,16a 
miles,  or  little  more  than  a  fourth  the  diameter  of  the  earth. 

49.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  earth? — It  is  a  round  balJ  or 
globe,  shaped  like  an  orange,  being  a  little  thicker  when 
measured  across  the  equator  than  from  pole  to  pole. 

50.  Has  it  the  appearance  of  a'  globular  body  ? — No ;  to  ordiry 
ary  observation  it  appears  like  a  level  plain. 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821 — See  page  411. 


i6  ASTRONOMY. 

51.  How  do  we  know  it  is  round? — By  looking  to  the  sea 
on  a  clear  day,  when  we  see  the  tops  of  approaching  vessels 
first  appear,  and  gradually  the  lower  parts. 

52.  Standing  on  the  shore,  how  far  can  you  see  along  the  sur- 
face of  the  ocean  ? — At  most  from  eight  to  nine  miles. 

53.  Are  all  the  planetary  bodies  round? — Yes;  they  are  all 
globular  in  form,  and  so  are  the  satellites. 

54.  What  sustains  the  planets  in  the  heavens? — They  are  sus- 
tained in  their  appointed  courses  by  two  contending  forces, 
one  drawing  them  towards  the  sun,  and  the  other  urging  them 
in  a  direction  that  would  carry  them  away  from  the  sun. 

55.  How  were  these  forces  impressed  on  them?—i:hQSQ  forces 
were  impressed  on  them  by  the  Creator,  and  are  among  the 
most  wonderful  of  His  works. 

56.  Give  an  example  of  the  drawing  forces. — When  an  object 
falls  to  the  ground  it  is  because  the  earth,  as  the  larger  body, 
draws  the  small  one  to  it. 

57.  What  is  this  drawing  force  usually  called? — It  is  called 
gravitation. 

58.  Give  an  example  of  the  other  force. — When  a  carriage- 
wheel  goes  rapidly  round  on  a  wet  day,  it  throws  sparks  of 
dirt  from  it.  In  the  same  manner  a  grinding-stone  whirling 
in  contact  with  water  throws  off  a  shower  of  spray. 

59.  What  is  this  repelling  force  ordinarily  called? — It  ia 
called  centrifugal  force— that  is,  the  impulse  to  fly  from  the 
centre. 

60.  Where  in  the  Scripture  are  we  re7ninded  that  the  earth  is 
unsupported  in  empty  space? — ^Job,  speaking  of  the  power  and 
goodness  of  God,  says :  "  He  hangeth  the  earth  upon  noth- 
ing." 

61.  How  do  gravitation  and  centrifugal  force  act  in  the  case  of 
the  satellites? — Just  as  the  earth  revolves  round  the  sun,  so 
the  satellites  revolve  round  their  respective  planets. 

62.  Explain  how  the  sun  appears  to  rise  in  the  morning,  to 
wheel  over  the  earth,  and  set  in  the  evening. — This  is  only  a 
deception  of  the  senses;  it  is  the  earth  that  is  in  reality 
turning  round,  but  we  can  neither  see  nor  feel  it  moving. 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult    Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


ASTRONOMY.  1 7 

63.  Mention  a  familiar  exafnple  of  this  kind  of  deception.-^ 
When  we  are  gliding  smoothly  along  in  a  railway-train,  we  are 
apt  to  think  that  the  fields  and  other  objects  are  moving  past 
us. 

64.  But  we  speak  of  the  sun  rising  and  setting,  and  say  thi 
saine  thing  of  the  moon. — These  are  only  convenient  phrases; 
all  that  is  now  meant  by  them  is,  that  the  sun  or  moon  seems 
to  rise  and  set. 

65.  What  are  the  inotions  of  the  earth  ? —  The  earth  has  two 
distinct  motions;  it  rotates  on  its  own  axis,  and  it  revolves 
round  the  sun. 

66.  What  is  meant  by  rotating  on  its  axis?—T\\'3X  it  goes 
round  in  the  manner  of  a  ball  on  a  spindle. 

(i'].  What  time  is  occupied  by  this  rotation? — Twenty-four 
hours,  which  form  a  day. 

68.  What  is  this  motion  ordinarily  called? — The  diurnal 
motion. 

69.  Describe  the  diurnal  motion. — The  diurnal  motion  is  from 
west  to  east.  In  the  morning,  the  darkened  portion  of  the 
earth  turns  towards  the  sun,  which  then  seems  to  rise,  and 
daylight  ensues.  In  the  evening,  that  part  of  the  earth  which 
was  in  the  west  sinks  in  the  east,  and  there  is  darkness  oy  the 
apparent  setting  of  the  sun. 

70.  Then,  the  sun  is  always  shining  on  some  part  of  ths 
earth  ? — Yes ;  the  sun  lights  up  different  parts  in  turn ;  when 
it  is  morning  with  us,  it  is  evening  somewhere  else ;  when  we 
are  sleeping  in  the  darkness  of  night,  others  are  in  the  blaze 
of  noonday. 

71.  What  is  signified  by  noon? — Twelve  o'clock  at  mid-day, 
when  the  part  of  the  earth  we  are  upon  is  most  fully  opposite 
the  sun. 

72.  What  is  that  position  of  the  sun  relative  to  our  part  of  thd 
earth  called? — The  sun  is  said  to  be  on  our  meridian. 

73.  What  length  of  time  does  the  revolution  of  the  earth  round 
the  sun  occupy? — 365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  and  49  seconds, 
which  form  a  solar  year. 

74.  What  is  caused  by  the  annual  revolution? — The  change  o\ 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000     Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503, — See  page  181. 


18  ASTRONOMY. 

seasons,  Spring,  Summer,  Autumn,  and  Winter,  according  ta 
the  relative  position  of  the  earth  and  the  sun  at  different 
periods. 

75.  What  is  7neant  by  the  orbit  of  the  earth? — It  is  the  path 
which  it  traverses  in  its  annual  revolution. 

'jd.  What  is  the  form  of  this  orbit ;  is  it  a  circle  or  an  ovalf 
— The  earth's  orbit  is  of  an  oval  form. 

']'].  Ingoing  round  the  sun,  what  is  the  posture  of  the  earth? — 
The  earth's  axis  does  not  stand  perpendicular  to  the  plane  in 
which  its  orbit  lies,  but  has  a  slight  obliquity  or  inclination; 
it  always,  however,  keeps  nearly  the  same  inclination,  and  for 
a  long  period  points  sensibly  in  the  same  direction. 

78.  What  is  the  consequence  of  this  position  of  the  earth's 
axis? — That  the  several  parts  of  the  earth  are  more  turned 
towards  the  sun  at  one  part  of  the  orbit  than  at  another,  and 
thus  experience  a  change  of  seasons,  and  a  difference  in  the 
length  of  days  and  nights. 

79.  If  the  earth's  axis  were  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its 
orbit,  what  would  ensue? — There  would  be  no  change  of  seasons; 
but  a  belt  of  the  earth  round  the  middle,  between  the  two 
ends  of  the  axis,  would  have  perpetual  summer;  while  the 
parts  •  owards  the  ends  would  suffer  perpetual  winter. 

80.  What  are  the  ejtds  of  the  axis  called? — The  North  and 
South  Poles. 

81.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  pole? — It  is  a  Greek 
word,  signifying  a  pivot  or  turning-point. 

82.  What  is  the  ecliptic? — It  is  an  imaginary  circle  which 
the  sun  appears  to  traverse  in  the  heavens  in  the  course  of  a 
year,  in  consequence  of  the  earth's  motion  in  its  orbit. 

83.  What  is  the  equator? — It  is  an  imaginary  line  round  the 
middle  of  the  globe,  midway  between  the  two  poles. 

84.  HoT'  is  the  ecliptic  situated  with  respect  to  the  equator  ?^^ 
The  ecliptic  crosses  the  equator  in  a  slanting  or  obliqua 
direction  at  two  points,  so  that  one  half  of  it  is  to  the  north 
of  the  equator,  and  the  other  half  to  the  south. 

85.  What  are  the  two  crossing  points  called? — The  equinoxes, 
or  equinoctial  points;  because  when  the  s"n  is  in  these  points, 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,    in   Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Gods.— See  page   248. 


K/i 


U\ 


ASTRONOMY. 


19 


the  days  and  nights  are  equal  all  over  the  earth ;  this  is  on 
the  20th  March  and  23d  September. 

2>6.  How  far  does  the  sun  ever  recede  north  or  south  from  tht 
equator  as  he  travels  in  the  ecliptic  f — To  a  distance  depending 
on  the  obliquity  of  the  earth's  axis,  which  is  rather  more  than 
one-fourth  of  the  distance  of  the  equator  from  the  pole. 

87.  Ho7u  are  these  distances  marked  on  globes  and  maps  f — 
By  two  lines  or  circles  :  the  one  to  the  north  being  called  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  the  one  to  the  south  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn. 

88.  What  are  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  Circles  f — Two  ima- 
ginary lines  round  the  globe,  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
poles  that  the  tropics  are  from  the  equator. 

89.  How  do  these  circles  divide  the  earth's  surface? — Into 
five  regions,  called  zones,  distinguished  by  differences  of 
climate. 

90.  Which  is  the  warmest  region  ? — That  lying  between  the 
two  tropics,  called  the  Torrid  Zone. 

91.  Explain  the  reason, — Because  the  sun's  path  lies  within 
/he  regions  of  the  Mavens  exactly  opposite  ;  twice  a  year  he 


west 


CCUTHiPOLfl 


Is  exactly  overhead,  and  is  never  vertically  above  my  other 
part  of  the  earth's  surface ;  so  that  his  rays,  here  falling  per- 
pendicularly, or  nearly  so,  give  the  earth  the  full  benefit  of 
their  heat. 

92.  In  what  parts  of  the  earth  is  the  temperature  generally 
most  moderate  ? — In  the  two  belts  called  the  Temperate  zones, 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70.— See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12. — See  page   242, 


20 


ASTRONOMY, 


lying  on  opposite  sides  of  the  torrid  zone,  and  between   it 
and  the  polar  circles. 

93.  Why? — Because  the  rays  of  the  sun  always  fall  ob- 
liquely, and  thus  produce  less  heat  than  in  the  torrid  zone. 

94.  What  are  the  regions  within  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic 
Circles  called?— The  Polar  Regions,  or  Frigid  Zones. 

95.  Why? — Because  as  the  earth  goes  round  in  its  annual 
motion,  the  obliquity  of  its  axis  causes  each  pole  to  be  com- 
pletely turned  away  from  the  sun,  so  that  the  sun  never 
rises  for  months  together,  and  during  the  whole  of  this  pe- 
riod the  climate  is  intensely  cold.  However,  for  a  few 
rnonths  annually,  the  poles  are  constantly  turned  towards 
the  sun,  so  that  it  never  sets. 

96.  Is  there  not  great  heat  during  the  time  that  the  sun  never 
tets? — No;  for  it  only  goes  round  and  round  the  lower  part  of 
the  sky,  and  never  rises  high  enough  to  produce  much  effect, 
ox  be  able  to  melt  the  ice  and  snow  formed  during  the  long 
<vinter. 

97.  There  is  an  imaginary  belt  or  zone  in  the  heavens  unbracing 
the  ecliptic,  what  is  it  called? — It  is  called  the  Zodiac. 


98.  How  has  the  zodiac  been  represented? — It  has  been  divi- 
ded into  twelve  parts,  each  marked  by  a  sign  or  pictorial 
figure,  representing  a  constellation. 

99.  What  are  the  signs  of  the  zodiac? — They  are  known  by 
Latin  names — Aries,  Taurus,  Gemini,  Cancer,  Leo,  Virgo, 
Libra,  Scorpio,  Sagittarius,  Capricornus,  Aquarius,  Pisces. 

100.  These  names  have  been  translated  and  put  into  rhymg^ 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


ASTRONOMY,  21 

for  the  sake  of  fixing  them  in  the  memory.     Repeat  the  rhyme. 

The  Ram,  the  Bull,  the  heavenly  Twins, 
And  next  the  Crab  the  Lion  shines, 

The  Virgin  and  the  Scales. 
The  Scorpion,  Archer,  and  He-Goat, 
The  Man  who  holds  the  watering-pot, 

And  Fish  with  glittering  tails. 

loi.  What  IS  the  use  of  these  signs  of  the  zodiac  ? — They  serve 
to  indicate  the  apparent  situation  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens 
at  any  particular  time  of  the  year:  we  speak  of  the  sun 
entering  Aries,  and  so  on. 

102.  What  is  the  substance  of  the  moon .?— It  is  believed  to 
consist  of  rocks  and  other  opaque  materials. 

103.  If  the  moon  be  opaque,  how  should  it  ^ive  any  light? — It 
gives  only  a  reflected  light,  or  a  portion  of  that  which  it 
receives  from  the  sun  shining  upon  it. 

104.  What  are  the  dark  and  luminous  streaks  and  spots  in  the 
jnoon? — They  are  mountains,  valleys,  and  shadows.  The 
more  brilliant  parts  are  the  mountain-tops;  the  darker  streaks 
are  the  deep  valleys. 

105.  Is  the  moon  believed  to  be  inhabited? — No. 

106.  What  are  the  7notions  of  the  moon?— It  has  three 
motions ;  it  revolves  on  its  own  axis ;  it  revolves  also  round 
the  earth ;  and,  along  with  the  earth,  it  revolves  round  the 
sun. 

107.  What  space  of  time  does  it  take  to  revolve  on  its  axis  ? — • 
Exactly  the  time  it  takes  to  revolve  round  the  earth  ;  28  days, 
7  hours,  43  minutes,  and  11  seconds. 

108.  What  is  this  time  called? — A  lunar  month,  from  luna,  a 
Latin  word  for  the  moon. 

109.  What  is  the  result  of  the  moon  taking  the  same  time  to  go 
round  on  its  axis  as  to  rei'olve  round  the  earth? — That  we  never 
see  more  than  one  side  of  it. 

no.  What  else  is  remarkable  about  the  momi? — Its  changes 
of  appearance,  or  phases,  in  its  monthly  circuit. 

III.  State  the  chief  phases  of  the  7noon? — At  new  moon  it  is 
invisible  ;  it  appears  as  a  half-moon  at  the  end  of  the  first, 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


22  ASTRONOMY. 

full  moon  at  the  end  of  the  second,  decreasing  to  half-moon 
at  end  of  the  third,  and  disappearing  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
quarters. 

1 1 2.  What  is  its  appearance  during  its  first  and  last  quarters .? 
— It  has  an  elegant  crescent-like  appearance. 

113.  What  is  that  dim  appearance  of  a  moon  which  is  sonie^ 
tiiJies  seenlyingwithin  the  crescent  of  new-moon? — The  darkened 
parts  of  the  moon  faintly  visible  by  the  sunlight  reflected 
from  the  earth  upon  it. 

1 14.  What  causes  an  eclipse  of  the  77ioon  ? — The  interception  of 
the  sun's  light  by  the  earth  ;  the  darkness  which  creeps  over 
the  moon  being  the  earth's  shadow. 

115.  What  causes  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  ? — -The  passing  of  the 
moon  between  the  earth  and  the  sun. 

116.  To  what  extent  do  eclipses  vary  ? — Sometimes  they  are 
very  partial,  as  when  only  the  edge  of  the  moon  or  sun  is 
darkened ;  and  sometimes  they  are  complete. 

117.  What  is  an  annular  eclipse  of  the  sun  ? — When  the  moon 
covers  the  face  of  the  sun,  excepting  the  edge  all  round,  so  as 
to  leave  a  ring  of  light. 

118.  Why  is  it  called  annular  ?— From,  annulus,  the  Latin 
word  for  a  ring. 

1 19.  Do  the  moon,  planets,  and  stars  exercise  any  influence  over 
human  affairs? — No;  eclipses  and  certain  positions  of  the 
planets  were  at  one  time  thought  to  portend  good  or  evil ; 
but  all  such  notions  are  found  to  be  visionary. 

120.  Was  there  not  a  class  of  persons  who  pretended  to  tellfor^ 
tunes  by  the  stars? — Yes;  they  were  called  Astrologers.  In 
the  present  day  no  intelligent  person  believes  in  fancies  of 
this  kind. 

121.  Has  the  moon  any  influence  over  insanity  ? — Formerly 
there  was  a  belief  to  that  effect,  and  hence  the  term  lunacy; 
now  this  belief  is  abandoned,  though  the  words  lunacy  and 
lunatics  remain  in  use. 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


or  THt    '^ 

[  VNIVER8/Tr 


The    Battle    of  ^A/^ate^loo   was    Fought    June    18,    1815.— See   page    368. 


GEOGRAPHY.  23 

GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  What  is  taught  by  geography  ? — A  knowledge  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth. 

2.  What  is  the  extent  of  the  earth's  surface  ?  —  About 
200,000,000  of  square  miles,  about  two-thirds  of  which  are  oc- 
cupied by  water,  leaving  only  one-third  for  dry  land. 

3.  Into  what  is  the  land  divided? — Into  continents  and  islands. 

4.  What  are  continents  ? — Very  large  stretches  of  land,  of 
which  there  are  strictly  only  two — one  comprising  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  and  the  other  consisting  of  North  and  South 
America.  But  it  is  customary  to  regard  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
and  the  two  Americas  as  separate  continents. 

5.  What  are  islands? — Portions  of  land,  of  lesser  or  greater 
size,  surrounded  by  water. 

6.  Mention  so7ne  of  the  principal  islands? — Australia,  Tas- 
mania, New  Zealand,  Ceylon,  Borneo,  Java,  Mauritius,  New 
Guinea,  Madagascar,  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Madeira,  Great  Britain, 
Ireland,  Newfoundland,  and  Iceland. 

7.  Into  what  are  the  waters  on  the  globe  divided? — Into 
oceans,  seas,  lakes,  and  rivers. 

8.  What  is  an  ocean  ? — A  large  extent  of  sea. 

9.  Give  some  examples. — The  sea  which  separates  Europe 
and  Africa  from  America  is  called  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  America 
is  divided  from  Asia  by  a  larger  sea,  called  the  Pacific  Ocean; 
and  there  are  also  the  Northern  and  Southern,  and  Indian 
Oceans. 

10.  Give  some  exaviples  of  seas. — The  Mediterranean,  which 
lies  between  the  south  of  Europe  and  Africa ;  the  Red  Sea, 
which  lies  between  a  part  of  Africa  and  Asia ;  and  the  Baltic, 
which  lies  in  the  north  of  Europe. 

11.  What  is  a  portion  of  land  nearly  surrounded  by  water 
called? — A  peninsula. 

12.  What  is  a  point  of  land  jutting  out  into  the  sea  called? — 
A  cape  or  promontory. 

1 3.  What  is  a  bend  of  the  sea  into  the  land  called? — A  bay 
or  gulf. 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619.— See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born    1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


24 


GEOGRAPHY. 


14.  What  is  a  narrow  connecting  portion  of  sea  called? — ^ 
strait  or  channel. 

15.  Mention  some  of  the  features  of  the  land. — Mountains 
hills,  plains,  and  valleys. 

16.  Name  some  well-known  mountains. — The  Alps,  which 
bound  the  north  of  Italy;  the  Pyrenees,  between  France  and 
Spain;  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  North  America;  the  Andes, 
in  South  America;  and  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  in  India. 

17.  What  is  a  hemisphere? — A  hemisphere  is  half  a  globe. 
On  maps  the  globe  is  usually  represented  in  two  hemispheres 
— the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  in  which  are  Europe,  Asia  and 
Africa;  and  the  Western  Hemisphere,  in  which  are  North 
and  South  America. 

18.  What  enables  us  to  tell  the  position  of  any  place  on  the 
globe? — A  knowledge  of  its  latitude  and  longitude. 

19.  Explain  degrees  of  latitude. — The  earth,  from  each  side 
of  the  equator  to  the  pole,  has  been  divided  into  90  spaces, 
called  degrees  of  latitude — 90  north  and  90  south. 

20.  What  is  the  extent  of  one  of  these  degrees  ? — About  69  1-2 
English  miles. 

21.  How  are  these  degrees  marked  on  maps? — By  lines  drawn 
parallel  to  the  equator,  with  figures  at  their  extremities  stating 
the  degree  of  each. 

22.  How  is  a  degree  divided? — Into  minutes  and  seconds. 

23.  What  are  decrees  of  longitude  ? — They  are  spaces  reckon- 
ing east  and  west. 

24.  From  what  point  are  degrees  of  longitude  measured? — In 
the  United  Kingdom  they  are  measured  from  Greenwich, 
near  London — so  many  to  the  east,  and  so  many  to  the 
west. 

25.  Give  an  example  in  defining  the  situation  of  a  place. — 
Edinburgh  is  situated  in  55  degrees,  57  minutes,  20  seconds 
north  latitude ;  and  3  degrees,  10  minutes,  30  seconds  west 
longitude. 

26.  Mention  a  shorter  way  of  expressing  degrees,  minutes,  and 
seconds. — Certain  markings  are  used — as  a  small  °  for  degrees, 
a  single  point '  for  minutes,  and  two  points  "  for  seconds. 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great   Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long.— See    page    302. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


25 


27.  Where  is  this  kind  of  measurement  of  special  service  ? — It 
is  of  great  service  to  mariners  in  performing  voyages  across 
the  ocean.  By  knowing  the  exact  latitude  and  longitude  of 
their  ship,  they  are  able  to  steer  their  course  to  the  desired 
port. 

28.  How  can  they  tell  where  they  are?— By  astronomical  obser- 
vations taken  by  means  of  certain  instruments. 

29.  JVhat  instrmnent  used  by  mariners  always  points  north* 
wards  f— The  Mariner's  Compass,  which  consists  of  a  magnet- 
ized needle  or  shp  of  metal  poised  so  as  to  turn  freely  in  all 
directions. 

%    « 


The  Mariner's  Compass. 

30.  What  makes  the  needle  point  northwards .?— An  attractive 
influence  exercised  by  the  earth,  the  cause  of  which  remains 
one  of  the  mysteries  of  nature. 

31.  How  many  points  are  there  in  the  mariner's  compass? — 
There  are  four  cardinal  points,  North,  South,  East  and  West  ; 
and  twenty-eight  intermediate  points,  such  as  northeast, 
northwest,  and  so  on. 

32.  Does  the  needle  point  due  north? — No;  it  points  a  little 
west  of  north,  and  shifts  in  a  manner  necessary  to  be  known  by 
sailors. 

33.  How  are  the  cardinal  points  situated  on  a  map  ? — The 
upper  part  of  the  map  is  the  north  ;  west  is  on  our  left,  and 
east  on  our  right  hand  ;  and  south  is  at  the  bottom. 

34.  What  do  maps  usually  represent? —  They  show  countries 
with  their  principal  mountains,  rivers,  cities,  and  towns  • 
also  the  ocean-boundaries  of  the  greater  divisions  of  the 
globe. 

35.  What  is  the  largest  river  in  the  world? — The  Amazon,  in 

2 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators.— See    page    278. 


^ 


26  GEOGRAPHY. 


South  America,  which  is  4,000  miles  long  and  150  miles  broad 
at  the  mouth,  and  which  is  navigable  for  3,360  miles. 

36.  Mention  sojne  large  rivers  in  North  America. — The  Mis- 
sissippi, Missouri,  Ohio,  and  St.  Lawrence  are  well  known  for 
their  vast  size,  but  there  are  many  others. 

37.  Mention  two  well-known  rivers  in  Ireland. — The  Shannon 
and  the  Liffey. 

38.  Mention  some  beautiful  lakes  in  Ireland. — The  lakes  of 
Killarney. 

39.  What  are  the  principal  rivers  in  Europe? — The  Rhine, 
Rhone,  Danube,  Seine,  Volga,  Don,  Dnieper,  Elbe,  and 
Tagus. 

40.  What  are  the  principal  rivers  in  Great  Britain  ? — The 
Thames,  Severn,  Humber,  Tyne,  Mersey,  Tweed,  Clyde,  and 
Tay ;  but  all  these  are  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the 

^  great  Amer'can  rivers. 

41.  Mention  some  large  lakes  in  North  America? — Superior, 
Huron,  Michigan,  Erie,  and  Ontario. 

42.  Mention  some  grand  falls  of  water  in  North  Ainerica  ? — 
The  Falls  of  Niagara. 

43.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  water  of  the  ocean  ? — The  water 
of  the  ocean,  and  all  the  seas  connected  with  it,  is  salt,  and 
unfit  for  drinking  ;  by  evaporation,  table-salt  is  made  from  it. 

44.  How  deep  is  the  ocean  ? — In  the  Atlantic  and  several 
other  places,  the  ocean  is  some  miles  in  depth ;  it  generally 
becomes  shallow  towards  the  shore. 

45.  Is  the  ocean  at  rest? — No;  the  ocean  and  the  seas  and 
bays  connected  also  with  it  are  constantly  agitated  by  tides. 

46.  Explain  the  nature  of  the  tides  ? — They  consist  of  an  al- 
ternate rising  and  falling  of  the  water.  In  rising,  the  water 
is  said  to  flow,  and  in  falling  to  ebb ;  it  flows  and  ebbs  twice 
in  about  twenty-five  hours. 

47.  Are  the  tides  regular  in  their  action  ?  —No  ;  in  the  space 
of  about  fifteen,  days  there  is  a  particularly  high  or  spring  ti^c, 
and  a  very  low  or  neap  tide. 

48.  What  causes  the  tide  ? — The  combined  action  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  but  more  particularly  the  moon. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779.— See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See   page    133 


GEOGRAPHY. 


27 


49.  Does  the  water  rise  equally  high  everywhere  at  the  same 
time? — No;  the  tides  begin  to  rise  in  the  ocean,  and  reach 
the  lesser  seas  and  bays  later,  according  to  circumstances; 
but  there  is  this  remarkable  thing  about  the  tides,  that  when 
it  is  high  water  at  a  place  on  one  side  of  the  globe,  it  is  high 
water  at  the  place  exactly  opposite  to  it  on  the  other. 

50.  What  sea  is  noted  for  having  very  little  tide  ? — The 
Mediterranean,  in  consequence  of  the  narrow  inlet  from  the 
ocean  at  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar. 

51.  What  agitates  the  ocean  besides  the  tides? — The  ocean  is 
much  affected  by  winds,  and  also  by  currents  which  flow  in 
different  directions. 

52.  Mention  a  remarkable  current. — The  Gulf  Stream,  which 
flows  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  coast  of  America.  It 
divides  into  two  currents,  one  of  which  flows  towards  the 
northwestern  shores  of  Europe,  and,  by  its  warmth,  greatly 
modifies  the  severity  of  winter. 

53.  When  opposite  currents  meet,  or  encounter  rocks,  what 
ensues? — Whirlpools,  which  are  in  some  places  dangerous  to 
mariners. 

54.  Mention  two  remarkable  a7id  dangerous  whirlpools.  — ■ 
Charybdis,  in  the  Straits  of  Sicily,  and  the  Malstrom,  on  the 
coast  of  Norway. 

55.  Has  any  nation  an  exclusive  property  in  the  ocean? — No  ; 
it  is  the  common  property  of  mankind,  all  being  free  to  use 
it. 

56.  Does  this  common  right  extend  over  all  seas  and  bays  to  the 
shore? — No;  according  to  a  generally  acknowledged  law,  every 
country  having  a  seaboard  exercises  a  right  of  property  and 
jurisdiction  over  the  sea  within  three  miles  of  the  shore. 

57.  What  has  regulated  the  division  of  the  earth  into  separate 
countries? — Such  division  has  mostly  arisen  from  the  con- 
quest of  one  people  over  another,  but  also  from  their  peace- 
ful settlement. 

58.  What  constitutes  a  nation  ? — A  group  of  people  who  are 
mostly  of  the  same  origin,  speak  the  same  language,  and  live 
under  a  distinct  form  of  government. 

59.  What  are  the  principal  countries  in  Europe  ? — The  U  nited 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle.— See  page  13. 


upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65 


28  GEOGRAPHY. 

Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  France,  Spain,  Portu- 
gal, Italy,  Switzerland,  Belgium,  Holland,  Austria,  Prussia, 
Germany,  which  consists  of  several  states,  Denmark,  Sweden 
and  Norway,  Russia,  Turkey,  and  Greece. 

60.  Does  each  of  these  comprehend  only  one  nationality  or  race  f 
— It  is  not  altogether  so. 

61.  Give  an  example. — The  United  Kingdom  comprehends 
England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  all  differing  somewhat, 
but  now  happily  blended  as  regards  a  common  interest  and 
government.  Within  Germany,  Russia,  and  several  other 
countries,  there  are  siraihar  distinctions. 

62.  What  is  a  city  called  which  contains  the  seat  of  govern^ 
mentf — The  capital,  or  metropolis. 

63.  What  is  the  capital  of  the  United  Kingdom  ? — London. 

64.  What  is  the  capital  of  France  ? — Paris. 

65.  Mention  some  other  capitals.— M3.dnd,  of  Spain  ;  Lisbon, 
Portugal;  Rome,  Italy ;  Berne,  Switzerland  ;  Brussels,  Bel- 
gium ;  Amsterdam,  Holland ;  Vienna,  Austria ;  Berlin,  Prussia 
and  the  German  Empire ;  Copenhagen,  Denmark ;  Stockholm 
and  Christiania,  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  respectively ;  St. 
Petersburg,  Russia;  Constantinople, Turkey;  Athens,  Greece. 

66.  What  is  the  highest  mountain  in  Europe  ? — Mont  Blanc, 
which  rises  to  a  height  of  15,781  feet. 

67.  What  are  the  principal  seaport  towns  in  England? — 
Liverpool,  Bristol,  Southampton,  Hull,  and  Newcastle. 

68.  The  chief  naval  stations? — Portsmouth,  Plymouth,  and 
Chatham. 

69.  The  chief  manufacturing  towns? — Manchester,  Preston, 
Leeds,  Bradford,  Sheffield,  Birmingham,  and  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne. 

70.  The  chief  university  towns  ? — Oxford  and  Cambridge. 

71.  The  chief  cathedral  towns  ? — Canterbury,  York,  Winches- 
ter, Glouchester,  Salisbury,  Lincoln,  Litchfield,  and  Carlisle. 

72.  What  island  lies  south  of  England? — The  Isle  of  Wight. 

73.  Where  is  Wales  situated? — West  of  England. 

74.  What  is  its  general  character? — Wales,  usually  divided 


lulius    Csesar,  a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    iii. 


Th€   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles. — See   page  47. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


29 


into   North  and   South  Wales,  is  mountainous  and    pictur- 
esque. 

75.  Where  is  Scotland  situated? — North  from  England,  from 
which  it  is  divided  chiefly  by  the  river  Tweed,  and  Cheviot 
Hills. 

76.  How  do  we  distinguish  the  leading  divisions  of  Scotland? 
— As  consisting  of  the  Highlands  and  Lowlands. 

77.  Where  are  the  Highlands  situated? — In  the  northw^est 
of  Scotland.  They  form  a  mountainous  and  picturesque 
region. 

78.  What  islands  lie  west  of  Scotland  ?■— The.  Hebrides,  or 
Western  Isles. 

79.  What  islands  lie  north  of  Scotland?  —  The  islands  of 
Orkney  and  Shetland. 

80.  Me7ition  so7ne  of  the  cities  and  towns  in  Scotland. — Edin- 
burgh, the  ancient  capital ;  Glasgow,  a  large  commercial  and 
manufacturing  city  ;  Perth,  Dundee,  Aberdeen,  and  Inverness; 
also  Leith  and  Greenock,  seaports. 

8t.  What  is  the  district  of  Scotland  adjacent  to  the  boundary 
of  England  called? — The  Scottish  Border. 

82.  What  are  lakes  called  in  Scotland? — Lochs. 

83.  Mention  two  of  the  more  beautiful  of  these  lochs. — Lochs 
Katrine  and  Lomond. 

84.  What  is  the  highest  mountain  in  Great  Britain? — Ben 
Nevis,  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland. 

85.  What  is  the  height  of  Ben  Nevis  ? — 4,  406  feet. 

86.  Where  is  Ireland  situated? — West  from  England,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  St  George's  Channel  and  the  Irish 
Sea. 

87.  What  is  the  general  character  of  Ireland? — That  of  a 
green  and  fertile  island,  with  a  mild  climate. 

88.  What  island  lies  between  England  and  Ireland? — The 
Isle  of  Man. 

89.  Mention  some  of  the  cities  and  towns  in  Ireland. — Dublin, 
the  ancient  capital;  Cork^  Waterford^  Limerick,  Belfast,  and 
Londonderry. 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


30  GEOGRAPHY. 

90.  What  foreign  possessions  pertain  to  the  United  Kingdom  ? 
— The  more  important  are  Canada,  New  Brunswick,  and 
Nova  Scotia,  in  North  America;  the  West  Indies;  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  in  Southern  Africa;  Austraha,  and  New 
Zealand;  also  India. 

91.  Which  are  the  principal  countries  in  Asia? — Asiatic 
Russia,  Tartary,  Persia,  Japan,  Hindustan,  China,  and  Asiatic 
Turkey. 

92.  What  is  another  name  given  to  Hindu stan?^lndi\2i. 

93.  In  what  part  of  Asia  is  India  situated?— In  the  South, 
where  it  forms  a  large  peninsula. 

94.  How  is  India  governed ?—lihQ  greater  portion  being 
now  a  foreign  possession  of  the  United  Kingdom,  is  under 
British  rule,  with  the  chief  seat  of  government  at  Calcutta. 
Two  other  important  cities  in  India  are  Bombay  and  Madras. 

95.  Name  a  large  river  in  India. — The  Ganges. 

96.  What  large  island  lies  near  the  southern  coast  of  India  ?— 
Ceylon. 

97.  How  is  Asia  usually  spoken  of  ?— As  the  East,  from  being 
situated  to  the  east  of  Europe. 

98.  What  are  the  Asiatics,  or  people  of  Asia,  sometimes  called? 
—Orientals,  from  the  Latin  word  oriens,  rising;  by  which  is 
meant  the  country  in  which  the  sun  seems  to  rise. 

99.  What  kind  of  country  is  China  ? — It  is  very  large  and 
populous,  and  noted  for  the  production  of  tea,  which  is 
exported  in  great  quantities. 

100.  What  country  of  note  is  included  in  Asiatic  Turkey? — 
Syria. 

loi.  For  what  is  Syria  remarkable? — It  was  the  scene  of 
events  mentioned  in  Scripture  history;  its  principal  city  is 
Jerusalem. 

102.  What  is  the  most  interesting  country  in  Africa?-^ 
Egypt,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  early  history  and  anti- 
quities. 

103.  What  river  flows  through  Egypt? — The  Nile,  which 
every  year  overflows  its  banks,  and  renders  the  soil  richly 
productive. 


Crcesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    i437>   by  John   Guttenberg.-See   page   305 


CO 

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t) 
to 


GEOGRAPHY.  31 

104.  Of  what  race  are  the  natives  of  Africa? — They  are 
mostly  negroes,  and  are  in  general  in  a  barbarous  condition. 

105.  How  far  distant  is  the  continent  of  America  from  Europe^ 
-^About  tiiree  thousand  miles. 

106.  Why  is  America  sometimes  called  the  New  World? — 
Because  it  was  not  discovered  till  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

107.  Who  were  its  discoverers? — Christopher  Columbus, 
Sebastian  Cabot,  and  Amerigo  Vespucci,  from  the  last  of 
whom  it  was  named. 

108.  Of  what  extent  is  America? — It  consists  of  two  great 
stretches  of  land,  called  North  and  South  America,  unitedly 
extending  several  thousand  miles. 

109.  What  unites  these? — A  long  narrow  neck  of  land, 
called  the  Isthmus  of  Darien. 

no.  What  are  the  principal  countries  in  North  A7nerica? — 
Canada  and  other  British  possessions,  the  United  States,  and 
Mexico. 


111.  What  are  the  principal  countries  in  South  America  ? — 
Peru,  Chili,  Paraguay,  Guiana,  Brazil,  the  Argentine 
Confederation,  and  Bolivia. 

112.  In  what  respect  do  the  people  of  North  and  South  America 
chiefly  differ  ? — Excepting  Mexico,  the  people  of  North  America 
are  mostly  of  English  origin,  while  those  of  South  America, 
and  also  of  Mexico,  are  generally  of  Spanish  or  Portuguese 
extraction. 

113.  What  are  the  principal  cities  in  North  America? — New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Washington,  Boston,  St  Louis,  Cincin- 
nati, Richmond,  New  Orleans,  Chicago,  San  Francisco,  Toronto, 

I  I        Montreal,  and  Quebec, — these  last  three  being  in  Canada. 

1 14.  What  city  is  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States? 
— Washington,  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

115.  What  is  meant  by  the  West  Indies? — A  series  of  islands, 
the  larger  of  which  are  Cuba,  St.  Domingo,  and  Jamaica. 

116.  Where  are  the  West  Indies  situated? — In  the  broad  bend 
of  the  Atlantic,  between  North  and  South  America. 

o 

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CO 

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Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49- 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821, — See  page  411. 


S 


32 


GEOGRAPHY. 


117.  What  zs  reckoned  to  be  the  population  of  the  whole  worlds 
—A  thousand  millions  of  people,  about  280  millions  of  whom 
belong  to  Europe. 

GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  Geology? — The  science  which  is  con- 
cerned with  the  structure  of  the  earth's  crust. 

2.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  earth's  crust. — The  outward 
portion  of  the  globe,  which  is  composed  of  rocks,  beds  of  clay, 
sand,  and  other  substances. 

3.  Do  the  whole  of  these  substances  lie  in  confused  heaps  ? — • 
No ;  they  are  found  to  lie  in  a  certain  order  or  arrangement, 

4.  What  do  we  gather  from  a  study  of  these  circumstances? 
— We  learn  much  of  the  past  history  of  the  globe,  besides  a 
knowledge  of  materials  that  are  useful  in  the  arts. 


Unstratified  Rocks.  Stratified  Rocks. 

5.  In  what  forms  are  rocks  usually  found? — Some  are  found 
in  layers  or  strata,  one  above  another,  and  are  said  to  be 
stratified ;  other  rocks  are  in  huge,  irregularly-shaped  masses, 
and  are  said  to  be  unstratified. 

6.  What  is  thought  to  be  the  cause  of  these  distinctions? — 
It  is  believed  that  stratified  rocks  were  disposed  in  layers  as  a 
sediment  from  water,  and  therefore  they  are  called  aqueous  or 
sedimentary  roc^s]  while  the  unstratified  were  produced  by 
the  agency  of  fire,  and  are  called  igneous. 

7.  What  is  sometimes  a  special  condition  of  the  igneous  rocks  ? 
— In  certain  circumstances  they  have  been  thrown  up  through 
openings  and  chinks,  in  which  case  they  are  called  volcanic. 

8.  What  is  the  general  character  of  unstratified  rocks  ? — They 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY.  3^ 

are  hard  and  sparkling  ;  one  kind,  well  known  for  its  beauty 
and  durability,  is  Q2\\Q6i  granite. 

9.  Mention  one  of  the  volcanic  kind. — Basalt,  which  appears 
in  columnar  masses  at  the  Giant's  Causeway  in  Ireland,  at 
Staffa  in  Scotland,  and  other  places. 

10.  Give  the  names  of  sotne  of  the  stratified  rocks. — Clayslate, 
limestone,  sandstone,  chalk-beds,  and  ironstone. 

11.  What  is  found  in  so?ne  of  the  stratified  rocks  f — The  re- 
mains of  plants  and  animals. 

12.  How  did  these  remains  become  incorporated  in  stratified 
rocks? — While  the  rocks  were  forming  by  the  settlement  of 
loose  materials  in  water,  animals  and  plants  became  embedded 
in  the  deposit. 

1 3.  Do  these  animal  and  vegetable  remains  retain  their  original 
form  f— Many  of  them  do,  but  they  have  all  been  changed 
into  stone,  and  in  this  condition  are  called  fossils.  Palceon- 
tology — a  term  from  the  Greek  palaios,  old,  and  logos,  a  dis- 
course— is  the  branch  of  geology  which  treats  of  this  subject. 

14.  What  is  learned  from  an  exa7nination  of  such  remains  ?—>. 
A  knowledge  of  what  kinds  of  animals  and  plants  existed  on 
the  earth  during  a  long  course  of  past  ages. 

15.  Mention  one  of  the  larger-sized  quadrupeds  found  in  a 
fossilized  state  ? — The  Palaeotherium,  which  varied  in  bulk 
from  that  of  a  hog  to  a  rhinoceros. 


Palaeotherium. 

16.  Mention    a    well-known  fossil  shell.  —  The  Ammonite, 
shaped  like  a  horn,  and  common  in  the  south  of  England. 

17.  How  did  the  rocks  which  contain  these  animal  remains 
beco7ne  buried  at  depths  below  the  surface  of  the  earth? — The 


The   Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000     Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503 —See  page  181. 


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34  GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY. 

globe  has  undergone  many  convulsions,  submerging  some 
layers  of  rock,  and  bringing  others  towards  the  surface ;  and 
seas  and  land  have,  in  course  of  time,  changed  places. 

18.  How  have  mountains  come  to  exist? — In  some  instances, 
by  the  eruption  of  igneous  rocks;  in  others,  masses  have  been 
left  prominent  by  some  agency  which  has  worn  down  or 
denuded  the  rest  of  the  surface. 

1 9.  Are  there  various  agencies  concerned  in  wearing  down  the 
surface? — Yes;  the  air  and  running  water  are  constantly 
wearing  down  and  carrying  away  parts  of  the  solid  rocks.  Ice, 
in  the  form  of  glaciers  and  icebergs,  has  also  denuded  the 
surface. 

20.  How  has  sea-sand  been  formed? — Sea-sand,  like  clay  and 
various  kinds  of  earth,  is  formed  of  the  disintegrated  materials 
of  certain  rocks. 

21.  What  produces  the  rounded  stones  foufid  in  the  beds  of 
rivers  and  elsewhere  ?  —P'iqcqs  of  rock  rounded  by  attrition. 

22.  Explain  this. — The  pieces  of  rock  have  b^en  rolled  about 
in  water  till  the  corners  have  been  rubbed  off. 

23.  What  are  these  rounded  stones  called? — When  large,  they 
are  called  boulders,  when  smaller,  pebbles,  and  when  of  a 
very  small  size,  lying  in  beds,  they  are  spoken  of  as  gravel. 

24.  What  is  meant  by  Silurian  rocks? — Strata  of  sedimentary 
rocks,  many  of  them  limestone,  caled  Silurian,  because  found 
in  a  part  of  England  where  a  people  called  the  Silures  once 
lived. 

25.  What  is  conglomerate  ? — Rocks  or  large  stones  composed 
of  small  and  large  pebbles  firmly  cemented  together ;  such 
pebbles  being  the  gravel  of  an  early  sea. 

26.  What  is  another  najnefor  conglomerate  ? — Pudding-stone, 
from  its  resemblance  to  the  mixture  in  a  plum-pudding. 

27.  What  are  calcareous  rocks? — Those  partaking  of  the 
nature  of  limestone,  so  called  from  calx,  the  Latin  word  for 
lime.     Chalky  and  limey  soils  are  said  to  be  calcareous. 

28.  What  is  marble? — Marble  is  the  name  given  to  various 
kinds  of  limestone  rocks,  which  admit  of  a  fine  polish ;  some 
varieties  contain  small  fossilized  plants  and  animals. 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,    in   Mythology,  was   the   Food    of  the   Grods. — See  page   248. 


GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY.  35 

29.  What  is ''Parian  Marble?" — A  white  variety  of.  marble 
found  in  the  island  of  Paros,  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  and  used  by 
the  ancient  Greeks  for  their  statues. 

30.  What  are  siliceous  rocks  f — Those  partaking  of  the 
nature  of  flint,  the  Latin  word  for  which  is  silex.  Sandy 
soils  are  said  to  be  siliceous. 

31.  What  is  quartz? — A  white  sparkling  rock,  in  which 
gold  is  often  found. 

32.  What  are  downs  ? — Large  tracts  where  sand  has  accu- 
mulated in  heaps,  which  are  sometimes  covered  with  grass. 

33.  What  is  a  clayey  soil  called? — An  aluminous  or  argilla- 
ceous soil. 

34.  What  is  the  oris^in  of  the  word  aluminous? — Aluminous 
is  from  the  Latin  alumen,  signifying  alum,  which  is  one  of  the 
bases  of  clay. 

35.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  argillaceous  ? — Argillaceous 
is  from  the  Latin  argilla,  signifying  white  clay. 

36.  Besides  silex,  lime,  and  clay,  what  other  substances  are 
found  in  the  soil ?— In  most  inst2inces  the  soil  contains  decayed 
vegetable  or  animal  matter,  with  some  other  ingredients,  the 
whole  constituting  the  earth  of  gardens  and  fields. 

37.  What  is  a  delta?— A  triangular-shaped  tract  of  land 
found  at  the  mouth  of  some  rivers,  and  so  called  from  its 
resemblance  to  the  Greek  letter  delta  {A). 

38.  What  is  meant  by  Mi7ieralogy?—1\iQ  department  of 
science  which  treats  of  minerals. 

39.  What  is  meant  by  minerals?— Miner^ih  is  the  general 
name  for  all  the  different  substances  that  make  up  the  earth's 
crust,  such  as  clay,  sand,  limestone  and  other  rocks,  flint, 
black-lead,  salt,  coal,  and  the  like. 

40.  What  are  ores  ?— Ores  are  those  minerals  from  which 
metal  can  be  extracted  by  smelting. 

41.  What  is  smelting  ?—Ro2isting  ore  with  fire,  by  which 
the  pure  metal  flows  from  the  earthy  part  of  the  mineral. 

42.  What  are  the  principal  metals? — Gold,  silver,  iron,  lead. 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


'^f?;7"T.^hQrs  oFH^cules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    i2.-See  page   242. 


36 


GEOLOGY— MINERALOG  Y. 


zinc,  copper,  tin,  nickel,  and  antimony;  but  there   are   many 
others. 

43.  Are  all  metals  produced  by  sjnelting? — All  except  gold, 
which  is  found  in  a  pure  state ;  also  copper  and  silver,  which 
are  found  pure  in  some  places. 

44.  What  is  coal? — A  dark-colored,  inflammable  sub- 
stance, properly  called  fossil-coal,  because  it  is  dug  from  the 
earth. 

45.  Of  what  is  fossil-coal  composed? — Chiefly  of  vegetable 
matter,  compressed  into  a  compact  mass. 

46.  How  can  vegetable  matter  have  become  sunk  so  as  to  forjn 
coal?—^y  the  submergence  of  land  in  one  of  the  convulsions 
which  have  caused  the  sea  to  rush  in  and  cover  the  land. 

47.  Of  what  species  of  vegetable  7natter  does  coal  usually  con- 
sist?— Of  forests  of  trees  and  ferns,  upon  the  quality  of  which 
the  richness  of  the  coal  depends. 

48.  In  digging  for  coal  and  other  fossils,  whether  does  it  become 
cold  or  warm  as  we  descend? — It  becomes  the  more  hot  the  lower 
we  descend  into  the  earth. 

49.  What  belief  is  entertained  from  this  fact? — That  the  cen- 
tre of  the  globe  is  in  a  state  of  very  great  heat. 

50.  How  is  the  central  heat  of  the  globe  manifested  on  the  sur- 
face ? — By  volcanoes  and  hot  mineral  springs. 

51.  What  are  volcanoes? — Mountains  which,  through  open- 
ings, occasionally  throw  up  burning  matter  or  lava,  together 
with  stones,  ashes,  and,  in  some  instances,  mud. 

52.  What  is  the  opening  of  a  volcano  called? — The  crater. 

53.  How  is  the  burning  matter   ejected  from   the  crater?-^ 
Sometimes   it   is  thrown   to  a    height   in    the    atmosphere, 
accompanied  with  dense  smoke ;  at  other  times,  it  flows  as 
a  stream  of  burning  lava  down  the  sides  of  the  mountain, 
destroying  fields  and  houses  in  its  course. 

54.  When  the  lava  cools,  what  is  its  usual  appearance? — ■ 
That  of  a  hard,  black  rock,  but  porous,  or  full  of  small  holes. 

55.  Are  there  many  volcanoes? — They  are  some  hundreds  in 
number. 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    I789^-Se^_pag^j407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


GEO  LOG  Y— MINER  A  LOGY. 


37 


56.  Which  are  the  more  remarkable  in  Europe  ?—Eindi  in 
Sicily,  Vesuvius  in  Italy,  and  Hecla  in  Iceland. 

57.  In  what  part  of  the  earth  are  volcanoes  most  numerous  ? 

In  South  America. 

58.  Do  volcanoes  ever  occtcr  i?t  the  sea  /—Yes  ;  they  sometimes 
break  out  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  and  throw  up  materials 
which  form  volcanic  islands. 

59.  Are  there  any  extinct  volcanoes  f— There  are  many  such  ; 
some  may  be  seen  in  Auvergne  in  France,  with  their  craters, 
resembling  great  basins  covered  with  green  turf. 


Mount  Etna,  in  Sicily. 

60.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  term  volcano?— It  is  from  Vul- 
can, a  heathen  deity,  who  was  supposed  by  the  ancients  to  re- 
side under  Mount  Etna,  engaged  in  forging  thunderbolts  for 
Jupiter. 

61.  Why  are  certain  springs  called  mineral  springs  ? — Because 
they  contain  a  quantity  of  some  soluble  mineral,  such  as 
various  kinds  of  salts,  iron,  and  lime. 

62.  What  are  the  springs  called  that  contain  iron? — Chaly- 
beate springs,  from  chalybs,  the  Greek  word  for  steel ;  they 
are  also  called  ferruginous  springs,  from  ferrum,  the  Latin 
word  for  iron. 

2   A 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


38  GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY. 

63.  How  are  mineral  substances  imparted  to  springs? — The 
water  dissolves  them  in  passing  through  rocks  and  other 
strata  that  contain  them,  and  if  the  rocks  are  hot,  the  conse- 
quence is  that  the  mineral  water  is  warm. 

64.  What  is  petroleum? — Natural  oil,  which  gushes  in 
springs  from  the  earth,  and  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  naphtha. 

65.  Where  are  these  oil-springs  found? — In  Burmah  and 
in    other    parts  of  Asia,  France,  Italy,  and  North  America. 

66.  How  is  the  oil  formed  in  the  earth  ? — It  is  believed  to  be 
a  result  of  the  earth's  internal  heat  acting  on  beds  of  a  rich 
kind  of  coal.  The  heat  may  be  said  to  distill  the  oil  from 
the  coal — perhaps  first  raising  a  gas,  which  is  reduced  to  a 
liquid  state  by  the  pressure  of  the  earth. 

67.  Is  petroleum  or  naphtha  an  object  of  manufacture? — Yes; 
it  has  latterly  been  made  from  petroleum-coal,  which  is  dug 
in  Scotland ;  the  oil  so  produced  and  refined  being  generally 
known  as  parafine-oil,  which  is  burned  in  lamps. 

68.  What  are  geysers? — Boiling  springs  in  Iceland,  in  which 
the  water  is  ejected  in  a  column  to  a  great  height,  the  force 
being  probably  the  steam  generated  low  down  by  the  heat. 

69.  What  are  earthquakes  ? — Disturbances  in  the  crust  of  the 
earth,  sometimes  only  slight  tremblings,  but  at  other  times 
violent  convulsions  accompanied  with  loud  noises. 

70.  What  is  supposed  to  be  the  "cause  of  earthquakes? — Vol- 
canic action,  by  which,  according  to  geology,  many  changes 
have  been  effected  on  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

71.  Is  geology  an  ancient  science  ? — No  ;  it  is  of  comparatively 
modern  origin,  and  new  discoveries  in  it  are  constantly  being 
made. 

72.  Were  ancient  nations  acquainted  with  mineralogy? — • 
Only  in  a  limited  way.  They  knew  of  certain  ores  which  they 
worked  for  purposes  of  art. 

73.  Substantiate  that  fact  by  a  quotation  from  scripture. — In 
Deuteronomy,  eighth  chapter  and  ninth  verse,  it  is  said  of 
the  Hebrews,  that  they  shall  have  "  a  land  whose  stones  are 
iron,  and  out  of  whose  hills  thou  mayest  dig  brass." 

74.  What  is  brass? — A  composition  of  copper  and  zinc. 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815.— See   page    368. 


GEO  LOG  Y— MINER  A  LOGY. 


39 


75.    What  is  bronze? — A  composition  of  copper  and  tin. 

'jd.  For  what  is  bronze  much  used? — Bronze  is  much  used  in 
fabricating  casts  of  statues  and  objects  of  an  ornamental 
kind. 

TJ.    What  is  pewter  ? — A  mixture  of  brass,  lead,  and  tin. 

78.  What  is  tinsmith's  solder  ? — A   mixture  of  lead,  and  tin. 

79.  What  are  such  composite  metals  called? — They  are  called 
alloyed  metals  or  alloys. 

80.  Is  the  gold  of  coinage  alloyed? — Yes  ;  it  consists  of  about 
eleven  parts  of  gold  and  one  part  of  copper,  the  copper  alloy 
being  added  to  give  hardness. 

8 1 .  How  does  the  infusion  of  copper  alter  the  color  of  gold  ? — 
It  gives  it  a  reddish  tinge  ;  if  the  mixture  consists  of  gold  and 
silver,  the  color  is  a  delicate  yellow. 

82.  Is  there  any  metal  tnixed  with  the  copper  coinage  of  the 
United  Kingdom? — Yes;  the  copper  coinage  is  a  mixture  of 
copper  and  nickel — the  nickel  giving  great  hardness. 

83.  Was  there  not  at  one  tiine  a  belief  that  the  baser  metals 
could  be  transmuted  into  gold? — That  strange  belief  was  once 
entertained  by  a  set  of  enthusiasts,  who  labored  to  discover 
the  art  of  making  gold. 

84.  What  were  those  enthusiasts  called? — Alchemists. 

85.  Although  alchemists  failed  in  gold  making-,  were  their 
labors  useless  ? — No;  the  alchemists  made  a  number  of  discov- 
eries concerning  the  properties  of  matter,  and  so  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  science  of  Chemistry. 


CHEMISTRY— HEAT— ATMOSPHERE- 
SOUND. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  chemistry? — The  science  which  treats 
of  the  elementary  properties  of  substances,  and  their  changes. 

2.  What  did  the  ancients  consider  to  be  the  elements  ? — Thev 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    pa^e  172. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


40 


CHEMISTR  Y—HEA  T—A  TMOSPHERE—SO  UND. 


spoke   of  fire,   air,   earth,  and  water  as  the  four  elements. 

3.  Were  th  y  right  in  saying  so? — No  ;  fire  is  only  an  extreme 
condition  of  heat,  air  is  a  mixture  of  several  elements,  and  so 
are  earth  and  water. 

4.  How  ma7iy  elementary  substances  are  now  known? — Chem- 
istry has  made  known  about  sixty. 

5.  What  is  their  nature? — The  greater  number  are  metals  ; 
five  are  gases,  or  fluids  in  the  form  of  air ;  the  others  can  only 
be  described  as  non-metallic.  All  the  objects  we  see  around  us, 
including  the  air  we  breathe,  are  compounds  of  some  of  these 
elements. 

6.  How  have  they  been  compounded? — Such  has  been  the 
work  of  nature — all  has  been  adjusted  in  a  scheme  of  compre- 
hensive Beneficence. 

7.  How  are  these  compounds  discovered? — Practical  chemists 
analyze  them  in  their  laboratories. 

8.  What  is  Chemical  Analysis  ? — The  disunion  or  separation 
of  the  elementary  ingredients  of  a  body. 

9.  How  is  chemical  analysis  effected? — By  a  great  variety  of 
ingenious  operations,  in  many  of  which  heat  performs  an  im- 
portant part. 

10.  Have  discoveries  of  this  kind  proved  valuable? — Exceed- 
ingly so.  Besides  extending  a  knowledge  of  nature,  the  dis- 
coveries of  chemists  have  made  known  many  useful  medicines; 
also  coloring  matters  and  other  preparations  which  are  of 
great  service  to  mankind. 

11.  Mention  so7ne  of  these  useful  preparations. — Soap  for 
washing,  which  is  made  chiefly  from  the  union  of  an  alkali  called 
soda  with  tallow.  Another  is  carburetted  hydrogen  gas, 
which  is  extracted  from  coal,  and  used  for  lighting  houses 
and  towns. 

12.  What  is  chemical  affinity  ?--T\\^  natural  attraction  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  matter  for  each  other,  by  which  they  combine 
to  form  another  body;  water  being  an  example  of  a  combina- 
tion of  hydrogen  with  oxygen. 

13.  What  is  chemical  decomposition? — The  dissolving  of 
bodies  into  their  original  elements. 


The    Rei 


-amous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in   1588.— See   page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302. 


O 


CHEMISTR  Y—HEA  T—A  TMOSPHERE—SO  UND.      4 1 

14  Where  have  we  an  example  of  this? — In  the  dissolution 
of  animal  substances  when  buried  in  the  earth. 

15.  Is  it  possible  to  transform  a  liquid  into  a  solid  body  f—^ 
Yes ;  for  example,  the  syrup  of  the  sugar-cane  can  be  trans- 
formed into  sugar,  a  solid,  dry  article. 

16.  In  what  manner  does  the  liquid  syrup  assume  this  charac- 
ter?— It  crystallizes. 

17.  What  is  crystallization  ? — A  spontaneous  arrangement  of 
particles  into  regular  fixed  shapes. 

18.  Are  there  other  instances  of  crystallization? — There  are 
many  such ;  but  none  is  so  beautiful  as  that  often  seen  in 
flakes  of  snow,  which  are  of  various  regular  forms. 


Flakes  of  Snow— magnified. 

19.  What  is  vitrif action? — The  process  of  converting  cer- 
tain materials  into  glass  by  fusing  them  together  by  heat. 

20.  What  materials  are  used  for  the  making  of  glass .?— Sand 
or  flint,  and  some  alkaline  salt. 

7.1.  Is  the  art  of  glass-?naking  ancient  ?~Yqs  ;  but  it  is  only 
in  modern  times  it  has  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  per- 
fection, as  is  seen  in  the  finer  kinds  of  crystal. 

22.  O/"  what  gases  is  the  atmosphere  composed ?— Chiefly  ni- 
trogen, with  oxygen,  and  a  small  quantity  of  carbonic  acid— 
the  nitrogen  is  nearly  four  to  one  of  oxygen. 

23.  But  is  not  the  oxygen  the  vital  principle  of  the  air  ? Yes ; 

but  it  needs  a  strong  dilution  of  nitrogen  ;  oxygen,  however, 
is  the  great  supporter  of  animal  life,  and  maintains  combus- 
tion. 

24.  Explain  combustion. — Combustion  is  the  combining  of 
some  substances  with  oxygen,  attended  with  red  heat,  and 
usually  with  flames,  whence  it  follows  that  the  fire  will  go  out 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators.— See    page    278. 


42 


CHEMISTR  Y—HEA  T—A  TMOSPHERE— SOUND. 


if  deprived  of  oxygen.    In  blowing  a  fire,  it  is  the  rush  of  oxy. 
gen  which  is  the  true  cause  of  the  fierce  blaze. 

25.  What  is  the  cause  of  rust  on  iron  ? — Oxygen  entertng  into 
combination  with  the  surface  of  the  metal,  the  combination 
being  promoted  by  moisture ;  rusting  is  an  ordinary  term  foi 
the  oxidizing  of  iron. 

26.  Is  the  coinmon  air  deterioated  by  breathing? — It  Is.  Pure 
air  is  chemically  changed  in  the  act  of  breathing,  and  what 
we  exhale  has  lost  its  oxygen,  and  is  loaded  with  carbonic  acid 
gas. 

27.  Is  carbonic  acid  gas  wholesome  ? — Inhaled,  even  in  small 
quantity,  it  is  very  injurious  to  animal  life ;  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  supports  vegetation. 

28.  Where  are  the  injurious  effects  of  breathing  bad  air  felt ) 
— In  close  rooms  where  several  persons  are  sleeping  or  sit- 
ting ;  this  is  a  common  cause  of  fevers  and  other  illnesses. 

29.  What  is  caloric  ? — It  is  a  term  sometimes  employed  to 
signify  heat,  and  is  from  the  Latin  word  calor,  heat ;  when 
anything  produces  heat,  it  is  said  to  be  calorific. 

30.  What  is  latent  heat? — Heat  which  is  concealed  in  g 
body,  and  does  not  manifest  its  presence  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances. 

31.  /y  the  development  of  fire  by  friction,  and  by  the  striking 
of  a  flint  on  steel,  a  result  of  latent  heat  ? — No  ;  that  opinion 
was  once  entertained,  but  is  now  abandoned. 

32.  What,  then,  produces  the  heat  ? — It  is  supposed  to  be 
caused  by  the  violent  arresting  or  retardation  of  motion. 

33.  Explain  this  more  fully. — Motion — as,  for  example,  the 
motion  of  a  wheel  on  an  axle — being  greatly  retarded  by 
friction,  or  suddenly  arrested,  as  in  the  case  of  a  steel  striking 
a  flint,  heat  is  the  consequence,  and  sparks  of  fire  are  probably 
produced. 

34.  What  do  we  feel  in  the  absence  of  heat? — The  sensation 
of  cold. 

35.  What  is  frost? — A  very  low  degree  of  heat,  which 
turns  water  to  ice,  and  this  begins  to  take  place  when  the 
thermometer  indicates  thirty-two  degrees. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779.— See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See  page    133. 


CHE  MIS  TR  Y—HEA  T^A  TMO  SPHERE— SO  UND.      43 

f6.  What  is  ice? — Water  frozen  into  a  hard  and  compact 
ns  /ss.  Certain  fresh-water  lakes  in  North  America  produce 
ice  in  perfection  for  the  cooling  of  beverages. 

37.  What  is  a  therfnojneter  ? — An  instrument  for  measuring 
heat,  consisting  of  a  glass  tube  with  mercury,  which  rises  or 
falls  according  to  the  surrounding  temperature. 

38.  What  is  the  scale  of  the  thermometer  ? — It  consists  of 
equal  divisions,  called  degrees,  made  alongside  the  tube,  and 
numbered  from  O  or  zero,  at  the  bottom,  to  212  at  the  top — 32 
degrees  is  the  freezing-point,  98  blood-heat,  and  212  the 
boiling-point. 

39.  Is  that  the  only  scale  ? — No ;  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
other  scales  are  employed;  but  this,  which  is  called  the 
Fahrenheit  thermometer,  from  the  name  of  its  constructor, 
is  the  one  used  in  Great  Britain,  and  chiefly  referred  to. 

40.  What  is  meant  by  radiation  of  heat  ? — The  process  by 
which  heat  is  given  off.  Heat  is  radiated  or  sent  off  in  rays 
from  the  sun,  from  a  fire,  or  from  any  heated  object. 

41.  Does  the  absorption  of  heat  in  any  way  depend  on  color  ? 
—Yes.  Black  garments  more  readily  absorb  heat  than  those 
which  are  white. 

42.  Where  does  this  fact  influence  the  inode  of  dressing? — In 
India  and  other  hot  countries,  where  the  natives  dress  them- 
selves chiefly  in  light  white  garments. 

43.  Does  color  affect  the  radiation  of  heat  ?  —Yes ;  a  black 
surface  gives  off  heat  better  than  a  light  one  ;  for  example, 
pipes  for  warming  houses  give  off  more  heat  when  they  are 
black  than  when  they  are  light-colored. 

44.  What  are  bodies  called  which  receive  and  convey  heat 
readily? — Good  conductors  of  heat. 

45.  Give  an  example  of  a  good  conductor  of  heat. — Metals  are 
good  conductors,  as  is  felt  in  the  handle  of  a  metal  tea-pot, 
in  which  a  piece  of  wood,  as  being  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  has 
to  be  interposed. 

46.  Do  not  woollen  garments  give  warmth? — It  is  a  popular 
error  to  say  they  do;  they  only,  as  being  bad  conductors  oi 
heat,  keep  the  animal  warmth  from  leavmg  us. 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle.— See  page  13. 


upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65 


44 


CHEMISTR  Y—HEA  T—A  TMOSPHERE—SO  UND, 


47.  At  what  temperature  is  water  most  dense? — At  about  4a 
degrees.  When  heat  is  appHed  the  water  expands,  and  after- 
wards beginning  to  boil,  flies  off  as  steam. 

48.  What  takes  place  when  the  temperature  of  water  sinki 
below  40  degrees? — The  water  expands  until  it  reaches  32  de- 
grees, when  it  assumes  the  form  of  ice. 

49.  How  is  the  expansion  of  water  in  freezing  familiarly  exem- 
plified?— In  the  bursting  of  water-pipes  during  frost. 

50.  What  promotes  evaporation  ? — The  heat  of  the  sun,  and 
artificial  heat. 

51.  Give  an  example  of  evaporation. — When  a  wetted  piece 
of  cloth  is  hung  out  to  dry,  the  moisture  is  exhaled  or  car- 
ried off  by  evaporation  into  the  atmosphere. 

52.  Does  evaporation  go  on  upon  a  great  scale  in  nature?— 
Yes  ;  from  sea  and  land,  and  from  all  animals,  there  is  a  con- 
stant exhalation,  but  more  in  hot  than  cold  weather. 

53.  What  causes  the  moisture  on  the  inside  of  glass  windows? 
— The  exhaled  breath  and  other  moisture  is  condensed  on  the 
glass  in  consequence  of  the  cold  outside. 

54.  If  it  be  very  cold  outside,  what  ensues? — The  moisture  on 
the  glass  is  frozen,  and  assumes  a  feathery  appearance. 

55.  Why  do  walls  and  paved  passages  inside  of  buildings 
sometimes  have  a  damp  appearance  ? — Because  their  cold  con- 
denses the  floating  moisture  in  the  atmosphere ;  this  is  seen 
in  mild  but  moist  weather. 

56.  What  is  dew  .^— The  condensation  of  atmospheric  mois- 
ture on  blades  of  grass  or  other  objects,  during  the  night. 

57.  What  is  hoar  frost? — Dew  frozen  by  cold. 

58.  What  becomes  of  all  the  moisture  exhaled  into  the  atmo- 
sphere ? — It  forms  fogs,  mist,  and  clouds,  which  are  only  va- 
por condensed  by  cold,  and  so  rendered  visible. 

59.  Why  do  fogs,  mist,  and  clouds  disappear  in  fine  weather? 
—They  are  dispelled  by  heat,  their  moisture  resuming  an  in- 
visible condition. 

60.  Why  does  mist  sometimes  disappear  suddenly  while  rolling 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of   45   Miles.— See   page  47. 


CHEMISTR  Y—HEA  T—A  TMOSPHERE—SO  UND. 


45 


along  hills? — The  mist,  in  its  passage,  comes  into  a  warmer 
atmosphere,  and  so  vanishes. 

61.  What  is  a  common  cause  of  fogs  at  sea? — Sudden  chilli- 
ness of  the  atmosphere,  by  which  the  exhaled  vapor  assumes 
the  form  of  mist.  When  the  sea  happens  to  be  of  a  mild 
temperature,  the  fogs  become  intense. 

62.  When  mists  and  clouds  are  not  dispelled  by  heat,  what 
usually  ensues? — They  drop  down  as  rain  or  snow. 

63.  But  why  do  heavy  rains  occur  in  warm  as  well  as  in  cold 
weather? — The  reason  is,  that  the  atmosphere  becomes  over- 
saturated  with  moisture,  and  must  necessarily  yield  it  as 
rain. 

64.  What  is  the  use  of  rain  ? — Rain  is  of  the  greatest  value 
in  irrigating  and  refreshing  the  earth,  in  supporting  vegeta- 
tion, and  in  supplying  water  for  the  use  of  man  and  the  lower 
animals. 

65.  What  is  snow? — Particles  of  water  frozen  in  the  atmo- 
sphere; when  rain-drops  are  frozen  in  falling,  they  form  hail. 

66.  Is  frost  of  any  particular  use? — It  is  of  value  in  destroy- 
ing hosts  of  insects  and  other  vermin  which  would  be  inju- 
rious to  vegetation;  also  in  mouldering  down  the  hard  clods 
of  earth  in  newly-turned-up  fields  and  gardens. 

67.  Is  snow  of  any  use  ? — When  it  lies  one  or  two  feet  deep 
for  any  length  of  time,  it  shelters  tender  vegetation  from  the 
severity  of  frost,  and  is  so  far  of  service  to  agriculture. 

68.  Does  sea-water  freeze  ? — Yes  ;  but  very  slowly  and  imper- 
fectly, and  is  seen  chiefly  in  the  polar  regions. 

69.  Is  the  ice  of  sea-water  salt? — It  is  less  so  than  sea-water  ; 
in  freezing,  a  portion  of  the  saline  particles  is  rejected. 

70.  Is  there  any  heat  in  ice  ? — To  the  touch  ice  always  con- 
veys the  sensation  of  extreme  cold,  but  by  the  thermometer 
ice  can  be  shown  to  vary  in  having  more  or  less  heat  like  other 
bodies. 

7 1 .  Can  ice  be  made  to  serve  the  purposes  of  glass  ? — Yes  ;  when 
sawn  into  thin  slabs,  it  may  serve  as  glass  for  windows ;  but 
this  can  take  place  only  in  excessively  cold  countries,  where 
the  rays  of  the  sun  are  too  feeble  to  overcome  the  frost. 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728.— See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


46      CHEMISTR  Y—HEA  T—A  TMOSPHERE—SO  UND, 

72.  What  are  glaciers?— RngQ  masses  of  ice  and  snow 
which  sHde  down  from  lofty  situations  to  valleys;  the  word 
glacier  is  from^/^<r^,  the  French  word  for  ice. 

73.  What  is  meant  by  glacial  action?— \i  is  a  term  used  by 
geologists  to  signify  the  effect  produced  on  the  surface  of 
rocks  and  mountain-sides  by  the  grazing  of  glaciers  during 
their  descent ;  the  collection  of  gravel  and  other  matter  brought 
down  by  glaciers  is  called  a  moraine. 

74-  What  are  icebergs  ?— Floating  islands  of  ice,  which  are 
seen  chiefly  in  the  ocean  in  extreme  northern  and  southern 
latitudes,  and  are  very  dangerous  to  navigators. 

75.  Whence  do  icebergs  come .?— From  the  polar  regions,  where 
they  break  off  from  the  ends  of  glaciers  that  protrude  into 
the  ocean,  and  float  about  till  they  are  gradually  melted. 

^6.  Are  there  any  means  for  discovering  the  approach  of  ice- 
bergs ?—OnQ  method  consists  in  watching  the  fall  of  tempera- 
ture in  the  atmosphere ;  for  the  icebergs  absorb  heat  for  a 
considerable  distance. 

-]-].  How  high  are  the  clouds?— Th^y  float  in  the  atmosphere 
from  a  few  hundred  feet  to  six  miles  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth. 

78.  Where  are  the  greatest  number  of  clouds?— In  hilly  coun- 
tries and  over  high  mountain-ranges. 

79.  Why  should  hills  cause  clouds?— The  cold  tops  of  hills 
and  mountains  condense  the  floating  moisture  in  the  atmo- 
sphere into  clouds  ;  and  as  clouds  produce  rain,  hilly  countries 
are  always  the  most  rainy. 

80.  Has  there  been  any  classification  of  clouds? — Yes  ;  for  the 
sake  of  distinction  they  have  been  divided  into  several 
classes. 

81.  Mention  the  names  of  the  principal  classes  of  clouds.— 
The  Cirrus,  or  thin  feathery  cloud  on  the  blue  sky ;  the  Cumulus, 
or  great  heap  of  cloud,  resembling  a  mass  of  white  wool ;  and 
the  Stratus,  or  general  haze.  These  leading  varieties  are 
sometimes  combined,  producing  the  Nimbus,  or  dark,  heavy 
rain-cloud. 

82.  When  is  the  nimbus  seen  in  its  most  perfect  form  ? — Dur- 


CrcEsus,   a   King  in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


4^ 
0\ 


Printing  was    Invented    in    i437»   by  John   Guttenberg.— See   page   305. 


CHEMIS  TR  Y—HEA  T—A  TMO  SPHERE— SO  UND.      47 

ing  thunder-storms,  when  the  atmosphere  is  densely  over- 
cast. 

83.  What  height  does  the  atmosphere  reach  ? — It  wraps  round 
the  whole  earth  to  the  height  of  about  forty-five  miles. 

84.  Is  the  atmosphere  of  uniform  consistency? — No ;  it  is  most 
dense  at  the  lowest  level,  and  grows  gradually  thinner  as  it 
ascends.  At  the  height  of  seven  miles  it  is  too  thin  to  be 
breathed. 

85.  Why  are  the  tops  of  high  mountains  perpetually  covered 
with  snow? — Because  the  air  is  so  thin  at  these  heights  that  it 
cannot  retain  the  heat;  the  consequence  being  snow  and 
glaciers. 

86.  Where  does  the  air  best  retain  the  sun's  heat? — Where  it 
is  dense,  and  to  a  certain  degree  moist,  and  it  is  there  that 
vegetables  grow  most  luxuriantly. 

87.  What  is  the  pressure  of  the  at?nosphere? — It  presses 
with  a  weight  equal  to  about  fifteen  pounds  on  every  square 
inch. 

88.  Is  this  pressure  sustained  by  animals? — All  animals,  includ-. 
ing  human  beings,  sustain  this  degree  of  pressure. 

89.  Why  do  we  not  feel  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere?-^ 
Because  it  presses  equally  on  all  sides,  and  up  as  well  as  down; 
the  air  in  the  cavities  and  small  vessels  of  the  body  therefore 
acts  as  a  spring  pressing  outward;  a  balance  of  internal  and 
external  pressure  is  accordingly  kept  up,  and  we  are  uncon- 
scious of  any  weight  being  laid  on  us. 

90.  Give  familiar  examples  of  the  pressure  of  the  atrno- 
sphere. — When  we  cause  a  thimble  to  adhere  to  the  hand  by 
sucking  the  air  from  beneath  it,  the  adhesion  is  the  result  of 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  exhausted  space  on  the 
hand.  The  water  in  a  glass  fountain  used  for  a  bird-cage  is 
kept  from  running  out  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

91.  What  machine  in  ordinary  use  acts  from  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere? — The  water-pump,  which  removes  the  air 
from  the  inside  of  the  tube;  the  pressure  on  the  surface 
without  then  forces  up  the  water  within. 

92.  What  is  the  air-pump? — It  is  a  machine  employed  to 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821  — See  page  411, 


48       CHE  MIS  TR  Y—HEA  T—A  TMOSPHERE—  SO  UND. 

pump  or  draw  air  from  a  glass  vessel,  producing  a  vacuum  ot 
empty  space;  the  glass  vessel  used  for  this  purpose  is  called 
the  receiver,  because  it  receives  objects  to  be  operated  on. 

93.  Can  air  be  compressed ? — Yes;  but  to  compress  it  great 
force  is  required,  and  it  has  a  tendency  to  rend  any  vessel  in 
which  it  is  forcibly  confined. 

94.  What  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  properties  of  the 
air? — Pneumatics,  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  to  breathe 
or  blow. 

95.  Is  water  in  boiling  affected  in  any  way  by  atmospheric 
pressure? — Yes.  Near  the  level  of  the  sea,  water  boils  at  the 
heat  indicated  by  212  degrees  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer; 
but  at  the  top  of  a  high  hill  the  water  will  boil  at  a  lower  heat, 
because  there  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  less. 

96.  At  what  heat  does  water  boil  at  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc, 
which  is  nearly  three  miles  high? — At  189  degrees  of  Fahren- 
heit's thermometer. 

97.  What  is  the  barometer  ? — It  is  an  instrument  employed 
for  measuring  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

98.  What  is  its  construction? — There  are  several  kinds  of 
barometers.  That  in  common  use  is  a  glass  tube  shut  at  the 
upper  end,  and  having  a  bulb  at  the  lower  end,  or  the  lower 
end  open  and  dipped  in  a  basin  of  mercury,  the  mercury 
rising  thirty  inches  more  or  less  in  the  tube,  according  to 
the  weight  of  the  atmosphere.  The  height  of  the  mercury 
is  indicated  by  a  scale  along  the  side  of  the  instrument. 

99.  Why  is  this  instrumetit  called  weather-glass  ? — Because 
the  degree  of  pressure  indicated  is  a  token  of  the  approaching 
state  of  the  weather,  such  as  fair,  fine,  r.'»in,  stormy. 

100.  How  is  air  altered  by  heat? — It  is  expanded  or  rarefied, 
and  so  being  rendered  lighter,  it  ascends  or  floats  upwards, 
while  colder  air  descends  to  take  its  place. 

loi.  How  is  this  exemplified? — By  the  rushing  of  the  cold 
air,  called  draughts,  into  apartments  where  the  air  is  much 
heated  and  rarefied. 

102.  How  is  this  shown  on  a  great  srale  in  nature  ? — Bv  tho 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344.— See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 

CI 


CHEMISTR  Y—HEA  T—A  TMOSPHERE—SO  UND.      ^g 

blowing  of  winds,  which  are  currents  of  air  set  in  motion  by- 
fluctuations  of  temperature. 

103.  What  are  the  trade-winds? — That  is  a  name  given  by 
mariners  to  winds  which  blow  steadily  for  months  in  parti- 
cular parts  of  the  tropical  regions. 

104.  What  are  tornadoes f —They  are  fierce  gales  of  wind 
which  often  cause  great  damage  in  the  West  Indies  and  other 
tropical  regions. 

105.  What  are  cyclo7tes? — A  cyclone  is  a  fierce  gale,  which 
blows  in  a  wide  circle,  as  a  species  of  whirlwind,  and  causes 
much  damage  in  its  course  :  the  central  part  within  the  circle 
being  generally  calm. 

106.  What  are  water-spouts? — They  are  tall  columns  of  water 
and  vapor,  which  are  caused  chiefly  by  whirlwinds. 

107.  Where  are  water-spouts  most  frequently  seen? — At  sea 
from  whence  the  lower  part  of  the  column  is  sucked  up,  and  is 
joined  to  a  part  reaching  from  the  clouds ;  such  water-spouts 
are  dangerous  to  mariners.  When  water-spouts  break  on  the 
land,  they  cause  great  damage. 

108.  If  heated  or  rarefied  air  be  confined  in  a  light  and  thin 
hag,  what  ensues  ? — When  the  bag  is  liberated  from  the  hand 
it  will  ascend. 

109.  Give  an  example- -The  soap-bubbles  blown  by  a  child 
^-the  globular  light  bubbles  being  bags  full  of  warm  or  rare- 
fied air. 

no.  What  is  a  balloon? — A  large  bag  of  light  silk,  which 
ascends  to  great  heights  when  filled  with  rarefied  air,  or  a 
species  of  gas  lighter  than  the  atmosphere. 

111.  Besides  supporting  animal  and  vegetable  life,  has  the  ait 
any  other  use? — It  conveys  sound. 

112.  What  is  sound? — Vibrations  of  the  air  conveyed  to  a 
membrane  in  the  ear,  from  which  an  impression  is  communi- 
cated to  the  brain. 

113.  At  what  rate  of  speed  does  sound  reach  the  ear? — Sound 
travels  through  the  air  at  the  rate  of  1,125  f^^t  per  second: 
the  report  of  a  gun  fired  at  a  mile's  distance  reaches  us  iq 
from  4  to  5  seconds. 

3 


« 


The   Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 
¥  50 


LIGHT— ELECTRICIT  Y—MA  GNE  TISM, 


114.  Is  sound  co7tducted  best  along   the  la7id  or  water 
travels  best  along  the  surface  of  water,  such  as  lakes  and  seas 
it  can  also  be  well  conducted  along  a  tube. 

1 1 5.  What  IS  an  echo  ? — A  sound  reflected  or  sent  back  from 
the  object  on  which  it  strikes. 

116.  Where  do  echoes  most  commonly  occur? — In  the  neigh- 
borhood of  rocks,  walls,  and  buildings. 

117.  What  is  meant  by  acoustics? — The  term  acoustics 
signifies  the  branch  of  science  which  treats  of  hearing  and 
sound;  it  is  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  to  hear. 

118.  To  whom  is  a  knowledge  of  this  science  of  special  ij?tport- 
ance? — To  architects  who  plan  churches  and  public  halls;  it 
being  important  that  all  such  buildings  should  be  constructed 
80  as  to  enable  speakers  to  be  properly  heard  by  an  audience. 


LIGHT— ELECTRICITY— MAGNETISM. 

I.  Mention  the  source  of  daylight. — The  sun. 
.  2.  Does  this  light  come  instajitaneously  from  the  sun  to  the 
earth? — No;  it  is  found  that  light  travels  at  the  rate  of  a 
hundred  and  ninety-two  thousand  miles  in  a  second;  accord- 
ingly, the  hght  of  the  sun  takes  eight  minutes  to  reach  the 
earth. 

3.  Do  rays  of  light  proceed  in  a  straight  line? — Only  when 
they  pass  through  empty  space,  or  through  a  transparent  body 
of  uniform  density. 

4.  What  ensues  when  the  transparent  body  is  of  a  varying 
density? — Then,  the  rays  are  bent  or  turned  aside,  and  are  said 
to  be  refracted. 

5.  When  are  rays  of  light  said  to  be  reflected? — When  they 
are  sent  back  into  the  medium  through  which  they  came  to 
meet  the  reflecting  surface. 

6.  Give  an  example  of  reflection. — The  hght  of  the  sun  which 
is  thrown  on  the  moon,  is  reflected  from  its  surface  to  the 
earth. 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in   Mythology,  was    the    Food    of  the   Gods. — See  page    248. 


LIGHT— ELECTRICI T  Y—MA  GNE  TISM.  5  j 

7.  Give  other  examples. — In  the  evening,  after  sunset,  and 
in  the  morning,  before  sunrise,  the  rays  of  the  sun  strike  on 
the  particles  of  air  and  moisture  in  the  upper  part  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  are  reflected  towards  us;  this  imperfect  light  is 
called  the  twilight. 

8.  Why  in  some  fine  climates  does  it  become  suddenly  cold  when 
the  sun  j^/j/— Because  the  air  is  too  pure  and  dry  to  retain  the 
heat  which  came  from  the  sun. 

9.  Does  the  light  consist  of  purely  white  rays  ? — ^They  appear 
so  to  the  eye  when  they  are  not  broken  up  or  refracted. 

10.  Explain  this  more  fully. — If  the  rays  of  light  are  made 
to  pass  through  a  triangular  piece  of  glass,  called  a  prism,  or 
other  transparent  substance,  they  are  separated  into  seven 
colors  shading  into  each  other. 

11.  Natne  the prisniatic  colors. — Red,  orange,  yellow,  green, 
blue,  indigo,  and  violet. 

12.  Are  all  these  colors  primary  or  elementary? — No;  there 
are  only  three  primitive  colors,  red,  yellow,  and  blue ;  from 
these  the  others  are  compounded — ^green  being  a  union  of 
blue  and  yellow,  and  so  on. 

13.  Where  are  the  prismatic  colors  shown  beautifully  in  na- 
ture f — In  the  rainbow. 

14.  How  are  the  colors  of  the  rainbow  produced? — By  the 
sun's  rays  being  reflected  and  decomposed  in  their  passage 
through  the  falling  drops  of  rain ;  to  see  the  rainbow,  we 
must  stand  between  the  sun  and  the  falling  shower. 

15.  /$■  the  rainbow  produced  by  moonlight? — Yes;  but 
faintly — it  is  called  a  lunar  rainbow. 

16.  Can  the  rainbow  be  seen  on  a  small  scale  ? — It  can  be  seen 
in  the  spray  of  a  water-fall ;  and  its  colors  are  seen  in  the 
crj'stal  drops  of  a  chandelier,  when  lighted  up. 

17.  What  is  polarization  of  light  ? — A  change  produced  on 
light  by  a  series  of  reflections,  or  transmission  through  crv'stals, 
by  which  it  is  said  to  be  polarized,  or  to  have  opposite  poles ; 
this  remarkable  property  in  hght  has  engaged  the  deep  study 
of  men  of  science. 

18.  What  use  has  sunlight  besides  that  of  giving  us  light?-' 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in    Mythology,  Numbered    12. — See  page   242. 


52  LIGHT— ELECTRICITY— MAGNETISM. 

The  light  of  the  sun  powerfully  affects  vegetation.  It  gives 
the  green  color  to  grass  and  other  vegetables  ;  without  it, 
plants  become  white  and  sickly,  as  is  seen  in  vegetables 
growing  in  a  dark  cellar. 

19.  How  does  sunlight  affect  animal  life?— \l  communicates 
health,  and  a  sensation  of  pleasure  to  most  animals,  particu- 
larly to  human  beings,  who  do  not  thrive  in  dingy  situations. 

20.  What  is  artificial  light?— Tho  light  given  by  candles, 
gas,  and  other  inflammable  articles. 

21.  What  is  meant  by  optics? — The  term  optics  signifies  the 
branch  of  science  which  treats  of  light  and  vision  ;  it  is  from 
a  Greek  word  signifying  to  see. 

22.  What  is  the  principle  of  vision? — Objects  presented  to 
the  eye  have  their  images  depicted  on  the  back  part  of  the  eye, 
called  the  retina,  from  which  certain  nerves  convey  intelligence 
of  the  image  to  the  brain. 

23.  But  how  is  the  image  or  picture  of  objects  condensed  into  so 
small  a  space  ? — The  front  part  of  the  eye  forms  a  lens  which 
collects  the  rays  of  light  proceeding  from  the  object,  and 
throws  them  condensed  on  the  retina. 

24.  Describe  a  lens. — There  are  various  kinds  of  artificial 
lenses,  but  the  best  known  are  those  used  for  spectacles, 
which  consist  of  pieces  of  transparent  glass,  ground  so  as  to 
bulge  in  the  centre ;  they  act  on  the  principle  of  collecting 
the  rays  from  objects  and  transmitting  them  to  the  eye,  in 
aid  of  the  natural  lens. 

25.  What  is  meant  by  "  the  focus  of  a  lens?'' — It  signifies 
the  point  at  which  the  converging  rays  meet.  The  greatest 
heat  is  there  felt,  hence  the  name.  By  means  of  a  lens,  the 
rays  of  the  sun  may  be  made  to  set  fire  to  an  inflammable 
substance  at  the  proper  focal  distance. 

^.  What  is  a  telescope  ? — It  is  an  optical  instrument,  con- 
sisting of  a  tube  fitted  up  with  a  number  of  lenses,  by  which 
distant  objects  are  seen  distinctly  ;  the  word  telescope  is  from 
the  Greek  tele,  at  a  distance,  and  scopeo,  I  see. 

27.  What  is  a  microscope  ? — It  is  an  optical  instrument,  fitted 
up  with  lenses  and  mirrors  for  the  purpose  of  magnifying  very 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in    Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


LIGHT— ELECTRICIT  Y—MA  GNE  TISM. 


53 


minute  objects  ;  the  word  microscope  is  from  the  Greek  micros, 
small,  and  scopeo,  I  see. 

28.  To  what  uses  has  the  microscope  been  put  by  7ne7t  of  science  f 
— By  its  means  a  knowledge  has  been  gained  of  the  struc- 
ture of  exceedingly  small  animals,  also  the  structure  of  plants, 
and  other  minute  objects. 

29.  What  is  phosphorescent  light? — It  is  that  which  is 
natural  to  minute  anirnals  in  the  sea,  some  kinds  of  fish, 
certain  decaying  animal  matter,  and  also  the  glow-worm  and 
fire-fiies. 

30.  What  is  electricity  ? — A  remarkable  property  in  nature, 
which,  like  heat,  pervades  all  material  things. 

31.  From  what  is  the  word  electricity  derived? — From  electron, 
the  Greek  word  for  amber,  which,  when  rubbed,  was  observed  to 
have  the  power  of  attracting  light  bodies,  as  hair  and  feathers. 

32.  Does  any  other  body  than  amber  show  this  power? — Yes  ; 
Several  others,  particularly  glass,  which,  when  smartly  and 
continuously  rubbed,  emits  bright  electric  sparks. 

33.  How  is  this  best  done? — By  an  electrifying  machine,  in 
which  a  glass  cylinder  is  kept  rubbing  against  a  cushion,  and 
the  electricity  so  produced  can  be  collected  into  a  phial  coated 
with  tin-foil.  A  collection  of  such  phials  is  called  an  electric 
battery. 

34.  What  is  a  good  conductor  of  electricity  ? — A  metal  wire  or 
rod  ;  all  metals  being  good  electric  conductors. 

35.  What  are  bad  electric  conductors ?—G\diSS,  wax,  silk, 
wool,  and  feathers,  also  dry  air. 

36.  Is  electricity  always  the  same?— No-,  there  are  two 
opposite  kinds,  called  positive  and  negative. 

37.  What  ensues  when  a  body  that  is  positively  -charged  is 
brought  in  contact  with  one  negatively  charged ?—ThQ  posi- 
tive rushes  into  the  negative  to  restore  the  equilibrium.  Usual- 
ly a  flash  of  electric  light  is  seen  on  such  occasions. 

38.  Where  is  this  seen  on  a  grand  scale?— In  nature,  when  the 
positive  electricity  in  an  overcharged  cloud  passes  with  a  tre- 
mendous  explosion,  into  clouds  negatively  charged,  or  into  the 
ground. 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


54  LIGHT— ELECTRICITY— MAGNETISM. 

39.  What  is  lightning  ? — Flashes  of  electricity  from  over* 
charged  clouds. 

40.  What  is  thunder? — Explosions   of  electricity    in    the 
atmosphere. 


Electrifying  Machine. 

41.  Is  thunder  dangerous  ? — No,  but  lightning  is  ;  after  the 
flash  is  over  the  danger  is  past. 

42.  What  is  done  to  avert  iftjury  to  buildings  from  lightning  ? 
—The  buildings  are  provided  with  metal  rods  which  conduct 
the  lightning  to  the  ground. 

43.  How  is  electricity  otherwise  demonstrated  in  nature? — In 
several  ways,  such  as  those  light  streaks  in  the  sky  at  night, 
called  the  Aurora  Borealis,  or  electricity  passing  through 
rarefied  parts  of  the  atmosphere. 

44.  What  is  magnetism  ? — It  is  a  natural  property  resem- 
bling electricity,  if  not  another  form  of  the  same  thing. 

45.  Where  is  the  magnetic  property  largely  observable? — In 
one  of  the  ores  of  iron  called  the  loadstone,  from  which,  by 
rubbing,  it  can  be  communicated  to  any  piece  of  steel.  Such 
magnetized  pieces  of  steel  are  called  artificial  magnets.' 

46.  What  is  remarkable  about  these  fnagnets  ? — They  attract 
small  pieces  of  iron  to  them,  and  hold  them  by  mere  contact. 

47.  What  else  is  remarkable? — Between  the  two  opposite 
points  of  such  slips  of  metal  the  magnetic  influence  is  con- 
tinually though  invisibly  flowing. 

48.  What  are  the  poles  of  the  magnet? — Its  extremities, 
Where  the  magnetic  influence  is  greatest. 


The   Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793     to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815.— See   page    368. 


CO 


MATTER— MOTION— WATER,  ETC.  55 

49.  Have  these  poles  any  reference  to  the  poles  of  the  earth  ? 
—Yes.  The  earth  itself  seems  to  be  a  great  magnet,  and  its 
magnetic  poles  nearly  correspond  with  the  north  and  south 
pole.  It  is  found  that  the  poles  of  an  artificial  magnet,  when 
nicely  poised,  are  directed  towards  the  magnetic  poles  of  the 
earth  ;  hence  the  action  of  the  mariner's  compass. 

50.  What  ts  Galvanism  ? — The  electricity  developed  by  the 
action  of  certain  chemical  agents  on  plates  of  different  metals, 
usually  zinc  and  copper,  and  which,  Hke  the  electricity  of  fric- 
tion, can  be  collected  in  batteries. 

51.  What  is  this  species  of  battery  called? — A  galvanic  bat- 
ter}^  from  its  discoverer,  Galvani,  an  Italian  philosopher. 

52.  To  what  use  has  this  ki7id of  electricity  been  put? — It  is 
employed  in  the  electric  clock  and  electric  telegraph. 

53.  What  is  the  principle  of  the  electric  telegraph  ? — Electri- 
city being  sent  along  a  wire,  causes  the  deflection  of  a  needle 
at  its  opposite  end,  that  points  to  letters  on  a  dial  according 
to  the  will  of  the  operator. 

54.  What  is  7neteorology  ? — The  branch  of  science  which 
treats  of  winds,  clouds,  rain,  thunder,  lightning,  and  all  things 
remarkable  in  the  atmosphere. 


MATTER  AND  MOTION— WATER— ME- 
CHANICS. 

1.  What  is  scientifically  meant  by  matter  ? — All  that  we  can 
recognize  by  the  senses — the  earth,  air,  water,  animals  and 
vegetables,  the  sun,  and  other  heavenly  bodies.     , 

2.  Explain  the  difference  between  organic  and  inorganic 
bodies. — Organic  bodies  are  those  having  a  structure  com- 
posed of  parts  each  adapted  to  perform  some  separate  func- 
tion ;  inorganic  bodies  are  destitute  of  this  natural  provision. 
Animals  and  plants — in  other  words,  all  things  that  have  life 
—are  organic  bodies  ;  all  other  things  are  inorganic. 

3.  When  one  body  is  heavier  than  another  of  the  same  bulk 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619.— See    page    I45- 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


56 


MA  TTER—MO  TION—  WA  TER,  E  TC. 


what  is  said  of  it  ? — That  it  is  more  dense,  or  consists  of  more 
particles  of  matter. 

4.  Give  some  examples  of  this  difference  of  density. — A  stone  is 
more  dense  than  water ;  water  is  denser  than  cork  ;  and  cork 
is  denser  than  air. 

5.  Is  matter  destructible  ? — No  ;  when,  for  example,  a  thing 
is  burned,  it  is  destroyed  only  as  regards  its  form  ;  the  matter 
of  which  it  was  composed  has  assumed  new  shapes. 

.  6.  Give  examples  of  substances  assuming  new  shapes. — If  the 
substance  burned  be  coal,  it  is  dispersed  in  the  form  of  smoke 
or  particles  of  soot,  gas,  and  ashes  or  dust.  In  the  same 
manner,  animal  and  vegetable  substances  decaying  in  the 
ground,  turn  to  dust,  or  exhale  into  gases. 

7.  Mention  the  7iame  of  the  force  which  draws  or  attracts 
masses  of  matter  towards  each  other. — Attraction  of  gravita- 
tion, as  exemplified  in  the  falling  of  bodies  to  the  earth. 

8.  When  a  thing  falls  from  our  hand,  is  its  fall  only  the  re- 
sult of  attraction? — Yes;  the  earth  attracts  it,  and  we  say  it 
falls. 

9.  What  is  the  principle  on  which  this  species  of  attraction 
takes  place?— T^NO  bodies  of  the  same  size  attract  or  draw 
each  other  equally ;  but  if  one  be  double  the  other,  it  will 
exert  a  double  force;  and  so  on  in  proportion. 

10.  Is  the  attraction  exerted  froin  the  centre  or  the  surface  of 
bodies? — It  is  exerted  from  the  central  point,  round  which  the 
particles  are  equally  assembled.  If  more  particles  are  on  one 
side  of  a  body  than  another,  the  centre  of  attraction  will  be 
correspondingly  different. 

11.  Give  aninstaftce. — When  a  body  falls  to  the  ground,  it 
descends  in  the  direction  of  the  centre  of  the  earth. 

12.  Is  what  we  call  straight  up  and  down  in  this  direction  ? — 
Yes;  the  straight,  upright  front  of  a  building,  for  example, 
is  in  this  direction.  This  is  determined  by  applying  the 
plumb-line,  which  hangs  straight  down  in  the  direction  of 
the  centre  of  the  earth. 

1 3.  How  does  distance  affect  attraction  ? — Attraction  varies  ac- 
cording as  bodies  are  near  or  distant  from  each  other — always 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long.— See    page    302. 

MATTER— MOTION— WATER,  ETC.  ty 

the  further  away,  the  less  attraction.     It  diminishes  inversely 
as  the  squares  of  the  distances. 

14.  Explain  this  more  clearly.— V^h?itQYer  be  the  attraction 
at  the  distance  of  one  foot,  it  is,  at  the  distance  of  two  feet, 
reduced  to  a  fourth  of  what  it  was ;  if  the  distance  is  made 
three  feet,  the  attraction  becomes  a  ninth ;  if  four  feet,  a  six- 
teenth. The  same  law  holds  good  of  light,  heat,  and  all  in- 
fluences which  emanate  from  a  certain  point. 

15.  What  IS  weight?— V^Qight  is  only  a  result  of  attraction. 
An  article  weighing  a  thousand  pounds  at  the  level  of  the 
sea,  will,  at  the  height  of  four  miles,  weigh  by  a  spring-bal- 
ance two  pounds  less. 

16.  Why  a  spring-balance  f—BQC2MSQ,  if  an  ordinary  balance 
with  scales  were  used,  the  weight  put  into  one  scale  would  be 
as  much  affected  as  the  article  put -into  the  other. 

17.  Are  there  any  small  bodies  in  space  beyond  the  earth's  at^ 
traction? — Innumerable  small  bodies  are  believed  to  be  float- 
ing in  space,  or  circling  round  the  sun,  beyond  the  ordinary 
attraction  of  the  earth. 

18.  Do  any  of  these  bodies  ever  fall  to  the  earth? — It  is  sup- 
posed they  occasionally  do,  when  the  earth,  in  the  course  of 
its  annual  revolution,  happens  to  come  so  near  them  as  to 
draw  them  towards  it ;  such  bodies  are  called  aerolites,  or  me- 
teorolites. 

19.  What  is  the  appearance  of  7neteorolites  in  falling? — 
They  have  a  luminous  appearance,  on  which  account  they 
are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  fire-balls  or  shooting-stars. 

20.  Why  are  meteorolites  lu7ninous  ?—^\\^j  get  heated  and 
luminous  from  the  rapidity  with  which  they  shoot  through 
the  atmosphere  towards  the  earth  ;  when  cool,  they  seem  to 
be  of  a  metallic  character.  A  number  of  different  sizes  are 
to  be  seen  in  museums. 

21.  /y  the  attraction  towards  the  earth  the  same  in  all  parts  of 
the  globe  at  the  sea-level  ?—N o ;  the  attraction  is  weakest  at  the 
equator,  and  stronger  as  we  advance  to  the  poles. 

22.  Why  is  there  this  difference  /—Because  the  globe  is  not 
a  perfect  sphere ;  its  diameter  at  the  equator  is  twenty-six 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


58  MATTER— MOTION— WATER,  ETC. 

miles  greater  than  at  the  poles;  on  which  account  it  follows 
that  the  surface  there  is  thirteen  miles  further  away  from  the 
centre  than  the  surface  at  the  poles;  consequently,  the  draw- 
ing force  at  the  poles  is  strongest. 

23.  Can  this  difference  of  attraction  be  exemplified  in  any 
way?—YQ^\  by  means  of  the  pendulum. 

24.  What  is  a  pendulum?— \\,  is  a  piece  of  metal  swung  by 
a  rod,  which  regulates  the  movement  of  clocks. 

25.  How  is  the  pendulum  affected  by  attraction?— Its  swing- 
ing to  and  fro  being  of  the  nature  of  falling,  it  swings  more 
actively,  or  is  attracted  quicker  backwards  and  forwards  at 
the  poles  than  at  the  equator. 

26.  How  are  pendulums  regulated  so  'as  to  keep  good  time 
everywhere?— ThQy  are  gradually  lengthened  in  advancing  to- 
wards the  poles ;  for  the  longer  they  are,  they  vibrate  the 
slower.     In  this  way  the  increasing  attraction  is  counteracted. 

27.  How  does  the  attraction  of  gravitation  operate  as  regards 
liquids  ?—Aiir^ct\on  operates  in  liquids  as  on  solids,  but  the 
particles  of  a  liquid  being  free  to  move  in  any  direction,  they 
all  endeavor  to  get  to  the  lowest  level  within  their  reach. 

28.  What  is  usually  said  of  this  tendency  in  water  ? — That 
by  gravitation  water  will  always  find  its  level. 

29.  How  is  this  seen  in  nature? — By  the  flowing  of  rivers 
and  rivulets.  As  is  well  known,  the  force  of  running  water 
is  employed  as  a  moving  power  to  turn  mills. 

30.  How  is  water  supplied  to  tow7is? — By  being  conducted 
through  close  pipes,  down  which  it  flows  by  its  own  gravity. 

31.  How  high  will  it  rise  in  any  town  to  which  it  is  conducted? 
— Water  will  rise  to  the  level  of  the  fountain  from  which  it 
flows,  and  no  higher. 

32.  Does  the  pressure  of  water  depend  on  its  depth  ? — Yes  ;  it 
increases  with  the  depth ;  this  is  shown  by  bursting  of  pipes 
in  low  situations,  and  also  of  deep  reservoirs  in  which  it  is 
confined. 

33.  What  is  meant  by  specific  gravity  ? — The  specific  gravity 
of  a  body  is  its  weight  compared  with  that  of  water. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geo^apher,   Died    1859.— See   page    133. 


MATTER— MOTION— WATER,  ETC.  59 

34.  Give  an  example. — The  specific  gravity  of  wood  is 
less  than  that  of  water ;  and  the  result  is,  that  water  buoys 
up  wood.     Stone  being  heavier  than  water,  naturally  sinks. 

35.  But  are  not  stones  easily  moved  in  water? — Yes ;  because 
the  water  partially  supports  them  on  all  sides.  Heavy  stones 
and  masses  of  gravel  are  thus  swept  away  by  floods. 

36.  Does  the  buoyant  power  of  water  depend  on  its  depth  or  ex- 
panse  ? — No  ;  if  there  be  enough  water  to  surround  an  object 
lighter  than  itself,  that  object  will  float.  A  ship  floats  as  high 
in  a  small  dock  as  in  the  ocean. 

37.  What  is  7neant  by  hydraulics  ? — Such  is  the  branch  of 
science  which  refers  to  the  motion  of  water  as  in  pipes  and 
sewers,  and  its  action  on  machinery  ;  by  hydrostatics  is  meant 
the  science  which  treats  of  the  properties  of  water  when  it  is 
at  rest. 

38.  What  is  the  cause  of  friction? — A  tendency  in  one  body 
to  adhere  to  another  called  adhesion.  The  application  of 
grease  or  oil,  as  is  observable  in  the  greasing  of  axles  of 
wheels,  and  the  oiling  of  machinery,  is  a  method  usually 
adopted  to  overcome  friction  in  moving  bodies. 

39.  How  does  adhesion  act  as  between  solids  and  liquids  ? — ■ 
It  acts  more  powerfully  than  between  solids  and  solids.  If 
we  dip  our  hand  into  water,  the  water  adheres  to  it,  and  re- 
quires to  be  rubbed  off;  what  we  call  wetting  is  only  the  ad- 
hesion of  the  liquid  to  the  solid  body. 

40.  But  liquids  do  not  always  wet  solids  or  adhere  to  them. — 
This  ensues  when  the  particles  of  one  substance  have  a 
greater  attraction  towards  each  other  than  towards  those  of 
another  substance.  As  example — a  rod  coated  with  grease 
remains  dry  when  plunged  in  water;  and  the  natural  oil  on 
the  feathers  of  water-fowl  keeps  them  from  being  wetted. 

41.  What  is  capillary  attraction  ? — It  is  a  particular  effect  of 
adhesion,  which,  acting  in  small  hair-like  tubes,  is  called 
capillary  attraction,  from  capillus,  the  Latin  word  for  a 
hair. 

42.  Describe  its  action. — If  the  end  of  one  of  these  small 
glass  tubes  is  dipped  in  water,  the  water  is  seen  to  rise  in  the 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist. — See  page  65. 


O 


00  MATTER— MOTION— WATER,  ETC  . 

tube  above  the  rest  of  the  surface.  There  will  be  no  such 
rising,  however,  unless  the  wattsr  wets  the  tube. 

43.  Give  some  fa7nilmr  examples  of  capillary  attraction. — Oil 
creeps  up  the  wick  of  a  lamp  to  supply  the  flame ;  water  wili 
creep  up  a  lump  of  sugar  till  it  is  all  moistened ;  water  will 
creep  up  the  foundations  of  a  house  and  render  the  walls 
damp  ;  and  water  in  a  cup  rises  a  little  way  all  around  as  if 
anxious  to  cling  to  the  vessel. 

44.  //■  «  small  object  such  as  a  stalk  of  tea  is  floated  on  the 
surface,what  ensues?— \i  near  the  edge,  it  will  rush  to  the  side 
of  the  vessel  and  cling  to  it. 

45.  What  is  the  inertia  of  bodies? — The  tendency  to  remain 
in  the  condition  in  which  they  are  placed,  whether  at  rest  or 
in  motion  ;  for  example,  a  carriage  is  at  first  difficult  to  be  set 
in  motion,  but  when  moving  it  is  as  difficult  to  stop  it. 

46.  What  is  the  tendency  of  a  body  in  a  state  of  motion  ? 

To  go  straight  forward,  until  it  is  obstructed  or  drawn  out  of 
its  course.  When  a  ball  is  shot  from  a  cannon  it  would  go 
straight  on  forever  unless  it  were  drawn  down  or  attracted 
by  the  earth,  or  stopped  by  the  air  through  which  it  has  to 
pass,  and  the  same  would  take  place  with  other  projectiles. 

47.  How  is  this  inertia  shown  in  the  case  of  persojts  i7t  a  car- 
riage?— All  the  persons  in  a  moving  carriage  participate  in 
the  motion.  This  is  fatally  exemplified  when  they  attempt  to 
leap  from  the  carriage,  for,  continuing  in  a  state  of  forward 
motion,  they  are  dashed  on  the  ground. 

48.  Are  the  lower  animals  acquainted  with  this  inertia  ? — 
Hares  instinctively  know  that  by  doubling  quickly  in  being 
hunted,  they  will  perhaps  outrun  the  dogs  which  follow  them, 
for  the  dogs,  not  expecting  such  sudden  turns,  shoot  a  good 
way  onward  before  they  get  round  on  the  new  track. 

49.  What  is  meant  by  saying  that  the  action  and  reaction  of 
bodies  are  equal  and  opposite? — That  a  body  reacts  or  strikes 
with  the  force  with  which  it  is  struck.  If  I  strike  a  table 
with  my  hand,  my  hand  is  equally  struck  by  the  table.  When 
a  blacksmith  strikes  his  hammer  on  the  anvil,  the  anvil  gives 
a  blow  with  equal  force  to  the  hammer. 

50.  Give  further  examples. — When  a  man  standing  in  a  boat 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The    Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of    45    Miles.— See   page  47. 


MATTER— MOTION—WATER,  ETC.  6i 

tries  to  push  another  boat  away  from  him,  he  pushes  his  own 
boat  off  at  the  same  time.  When  a  person  fires  a  gun,  the 
moving  force  of  the  gun  is  equal  to  the  moving  force  of  the 
ball,  but  the  gun  being  much  heavier  than  the  ball,  its  back- 
ward tendency  or  recoil  is  proportionally  less  than  the  for- 
ward motion  of  the  ball,  and  is  therefore  easily  checked. 

51.  What  is  momentum? — Motion  or  force  in  a  moving 
body.  But  momentum  does  not  depend  on  velocity  alone  ; 
it  is  made  up  of  velocity  and  quantity  of  matter ;  the  momentum 
of  a  ball  of  iron  being  very  much  greater  than  a  ball  of  wood 
of  the  same  size. 

52.  When  a  body  falls  fro7n  a  great  height,  is  its  fall  equal 
throughout? — No;  its  descent  becomes  quicker  as  it  falls,  be- 
cause it  is  at  every  instant  receiving  a  fresh  impulse  from 
gravitation  ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  never  loses  any  of  the 
motion  it  got  from  the  former  impulses. 

53.  How  is  this  exemplified? — In  the  severe  shock  which  is 
experienced  by  a  person  falling  from  the  roof  of  a  house,  in 
comparison  to  that  which  he  suffers  in  falling  from  a  chair  to 
the  floor. 

54.  Explain  why  vehicles  when  loaded  high  are  so  easily  upset. 
—In  proportion  as  we  raise  a  load  on  a  carriage,  we  raise  its 
centre  of  gravity,  or  that  point  in  the  mass  on  which  the 
earth's  attraction  may  be  held  to  be  exerted,  and  if  this 
point  happen  to  lean  over,  the  vehicle  has  a  tendency  to  be 
upset. 

55.  What  do  we  practically  learn  from  this? — To  keep  the 
centre  of  gravity  in  moving  vehicles  as  low  as  is  practicable, 
so  as  to  preserve  a  proper  balance  or  equilibrium. 

56.  How  do  rope-dancers  usually  preserve  their  equilibrium  ?— 
By  holding  a  long  pole  loaded  with  lead  at  both  ends,  with 
which  they  can  adjust  their  balance  on  the  rope. 

57.  What  are  the  mechanical  powers? — Certain  elementary 
machines  or  instruments,  out  of  which  all  machinery  is  con. 
structed. 

58.  Na7ne  the  eletnentary  mechanical  powers. — The  lever,  the 
3   A 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243, 


62  MATTER— MOTION— WATER,  ETC. 

pulley,  the  inclined  plane,  the  wheel  and  axle,  the  wedg-e,  and 
the  screw. 

59.  Can  these  be  reduced  in  number  ? — In  principle,  they  can 
be  reduced  to  two — the  lever  and  the  inclined  plane. 

60.  What  is  the  lever? — An  instrument  named  from  the 
French  word  lever,  to  raise,  and  which  is  designed  for  raising 
weights  with  comparative  ease. 

61.  What  is  its  form  ? — It  may  be  described  as  a  bar  of  iron 
or  wood,  the  point  of  which  being  inserted  below  a  heavy 
weight,  we  are  enabled  to  rai^e  it  by  exerting  a  moderate  force 
at  the  opposite  end. 

62.  Does  the  lever  create  power? — No;  it  only  modifies  it. 
By  no  contrivance  can  we  get  more  power  from  any  instru- 
ment or  machine  than  what  we  put  into  it. 


Man  and  Lever. 

63.  Explain  how  the  power  is  modified. — A  pressure  equal  to 
one  pound  will  lift  ten  pounds ;  but  to  lift  the  ten  pounds 
through  one  foot,  the  one  pound  must  descend  ten  feet.  Thus, 
length  of  time  in  pressing  with  a  small  force  is  made  to 
balance  or  overcome  a  larger  force;  in  other  words,  power  is 
gained  by  a  sacrifice  of  speed. 

64.  We  may,  then,  understand  thai  a  lever  consists  of  two  parts  ? 
■ — Yes;  it  consists  of  two  arms  usually  of  unequal  length — the 
hand  being  applied  to  the  one,  and  the  weight  resting  on  the 
pther. 

65.  What  is  the  fulcrum  of  a  lever? — It  is  the  point  or  prop 
between  the  two  ends  of  the  ordinary  kind  of  lever. 


Croesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned  for   Great  "Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


MATTER— MOTION— WATER,  ETC.  63 

(i6.  Give  examples  of  the  lever? — The  lever  is  exemplified 
in  various  ways.  The  instrument  by  which  a  nut  is  cracked  is 
one  example.  We  have  another  instance  in  the  rowing  of  a 
boat;  the  hand  of  the  rower  is  the  power,  the  water  against 
which  the  blade  pushes  is  the  fulcrum,  and  the  resistance 
to  be  moved  is  the  boat. 

67.  What  is  the  steelyard? — An  instrument  for  weighing  of 
the  nature  of  the  lever. 

68.  Explain  its  action  ? — It  is  a  lever  suspended  by  a  pivot 
which  is  the  fulcrum;  from  the  short  arm  depends  a  scale  for 
the  article  to  be  weighed ;  and  on  the  long  arm  a  weight  is 
hung  as  a  balance.  In  proportion  as  the  article  to  be  weighed 
is  heavy,  so  is  the  weight  slipped  along  to  a  greater  distance 
from  it. 

69.  What  is  the  inclined  plane  ? — Any  rise  in  a  road  is  an  in- 
clined plane.  The  most  obvious  example  is  that  of  a  cart  and 
horse  going  uphill.  If  the  rise  be  one  foot  in  ten  feet,  the 
horse,  in  addition  to  the  draught  on  a  level  road,  has  to  draw 
with  a  force  equal  to  a  tenth  of  the  weight  of  the  load. 

70.  Give  examples  of  instruments  conceived  on  the  plan  of  the 
inclined  plane. — The  most  familiar  examples  are  the  wedge 
and  screw,  both  of  great  importance  in  the  arts.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  lever,  a  small  force  exerted  through  a  long  space 
has  the  effect  of  a  greater  force  acting  over  a  smaller  space. 

71.  Why  do  people  feel  tired  in  going  up  a  long  stair  or  steep 
hill? — Because  they  are  at  every  step  lifting  their  own  weight. 

72.  What  is  the  wheel  and  axle  ? — It  is  only  a  variety  of  the 
lever,  as  exemplified  in  windlasses  for  drawing  up  heavy 
weights,  and  in  capstans  for  raising  the  anchors  of  ships. 

73.  What  is  the  pulley  ? — It  is  a  wheel  of  wood  or  metal 
fixed  in  a  block,  and  capable  of  turning  on  an  axis,  with  a 
groove  cut  around  the  circumference,  to  receive  a  rope. 

74.  How  may  power  be  gained  by  the  pulley? — By  making  a 
combination  of  them.  Pulleys  may  be  combined  in  a  var- 
iety of  ways ;  but  the  most  generally  used  form  is  that 
known  by  the  name  of  the  "Block  and  Tackle"  arrangement. 

75.  What  examples  of  these  mechanical  powers  have  we  in 


0) 

a; 

oa 

I 
d 

G 
O 
A 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821, — See  page  411. 


64  THE    VEGETABLE    CREATION. 

machinery?— T\i^  cogs  or  teeth  of  wheels  acting  on  each 
other,  are  examples  of  the  lever.  The  working  of  pump- 
handles,  cranks,  axles,  and  a  variety  of  other  kinds  of  me- 
chanism, are  adaptations  of  these  powers.  A  donkey  walking 
up  the  inside  of  a  large  wheel  in  order  to  draw  water  from  a 
well,  is  a  well-known  example  of  the  wheel  and  axle. 

^6.  What  is  the  special  use  of  machinery  ? — To  simplify 
labor.  One  of  the  simplest  machines  is  a  spade,  without 
which,  or  some  other  implement,  we  should  have  to  dig  with 
the  hands. 

'J'].  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  ''mechanical  combination  of 
substances?" — It  signifies  that  the  substances  are  simply  mixed 
together — as  for  example,  milk  mixed  with  tea,  spirits  mixed 
with  water — without  any  change  in  the  properties  of  the  sub- 
stances. The  phrase  is  used  as  a  distinction  from  "chemical 
combination,"  in  which  the  mixed  substances  undergo  a 
thorough  change  of  character. 

78.  What  is  meant  by  "Physics  f —It  sigm^es  the  science 
which  treats  Of  objects  in  nature  and  the  principles  on  which 
they  act ;  the  term  is  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  nature. 

79.  What  is  "  Natural  Philosophy?" — That  is  a  term  often 
employed  instead  of  Physics,  and  is  that  great  department  of 
science  which  includes  the  laws  of  matter  and  motion, 
meteorology,  pneumatics,  optics,  acoustics,  hydrostatics,  and 
some  other  subjects. 


THE  VEGETABLE  CREATION. 

1.  What  is  the  Vegetable  Creation  ?—-\t  consists  of  all  kinds 
of  vegetables  or  plants,  from  the  smallest  to  the  greatest — 
from  the  lichen  that  incrusts  the  rock  to  the  loftiest  trees. 

2.  What  other  natne  is  given  to  the  vegetable  creation  ? — The 
Vegetable  Kingdom,  by  which  it  is  distinguished  from  the 
Animal  and  Mineral  Kingdoms. 

3.  How  are  plants  produced  ? — They  chiefly  grow  from  the 
seeds  of  previous  plants  of  the  same  kind. 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


THE    WEST    INDIA    BANANA    TREE    AND    FRUIT 


The    Occult    Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


THE    VEGETABLE    CREATION  65 

4.  Are  there  jnany  differ  e7it  kinds  of  plants? — Upward  of  a 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  different  kinds  are  ascertained 
to  exist,  and  no  doubt  many  are  yet  unknown. 

5.  When  you  say  exist,  do  you  7nean  that  pla7its  line? — Yes; 
their  existence  is  a  kind  of  Hfe — Hfe  without  consciousness. 
Generally,  they  are  fixed  to  the  spot  on  which  they  grow. 

6.  What  nourishes  them? — They  require  air,  water,  and  a 
certain  amount  of  heat. 

7.  Do  all  plants  require  sunlight? — The  greater  number 
do ;  but  there  are  some  which  grow  in  very  dark  situa- 
tions. 

8.  What  is  the  effect  of  sunlight  o?t  plants  ? — It  imparts  the 
green  color  which  is  so  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

9.  How  do  plants  ifnbide  nourishment? — In  the  greater 
number  of  plants,  the  nourishment  ascends  from  the  roots 
through  the  stalk  and  branches  by  means  of  very  minute 
tubes  or  sap-vessels. 

10.  Of  what  service  is  the  air  to  plants? — The  leaves  of 
plants  have  the  property  of  absorbing  a  certain  amount  of 
carbonic  acid  gas,  which  they  find  in  the  air  that  has  been 
used  or  vitiated  by  animals;  so  that  what  would  become 
greatly  injurious  to  animal  life,  is  serviceable  to  vegetable 
life. 

1 1 .  Do  plants  exhale  any  species  of  air  or  gas  in  return  ? — 
In  day-light  they  give  off  oxygen  and  moisture,  which  are 
serviceable  to  the  animal  creation ;  and  thus  the  salubrity  of 
the  atmosphere  is  maintained. 

12.  From  what  are  seeds  produced ? — Generally  from  certain 
parts  of  the  plant  called  the  pistil  and  stamens  within  the 
flower  ;  the  germinating  power  being  promoted  by  a  species 
of  dust  called  the  pollen,  which  is  shed  by  the  stamens. 

13.  In  what  manner  do  seeds  grow  in  the  soil? — Seeds  begin 
by  swelling;  then,  from  apart  of  the  seed  called  the  eye 
a  double  shoot  is  sent  forth,  of  which  one  part  goes 
down  to  form  the  root,  while  the  other  rises  to  be  the  stem. 

14.  On  being  gathered,  do  seeds  long  retain  their  vitality?-^ 
Some  seeds  are  known  to  have   retained  their  vitality  foi 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles, — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


^^  THE    VEGETABLE   CREATION. 

thousands  of  years ;  they  will  also  lie  buried  for  ages  in  the 
ground  until  circumstances  allow  them  to  germinate;  but  if 
exposed  to  the  air,  most  seeds  lose  their  vitality  after  a  few 
years. 

15.  What  plants  do  not-  produce  the  ordinary  kmd  of  seeds? — 
The  Cryptogamia,  which  form  the  lowest  class,  in  point  oi 
organization,  in  the  vegetable  kingdom ;  the  name  is  derived 
from  two  Greek  words  signifying  secret  marriage. 

16.  Mention  some  of  the  plants  included  in  the  cryptogajnia.— 
Ferns,  mosses,  lichens,  algae  or  sea-weeds,  and  fungi. 

17.  How  are  cryptogamous  plants  reproduced? — In  various 
ways;  sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  ferns,  from  spores  which 
grow  in  clusters  like  specks  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf ;  some- 
times, as  in  the  case  of  fungi,  from  spores  within  a  part  of  the 
plant,  which,  broken  off  and  scattered  in  suitable  situations, 
will  reproduce. 

18.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  seed  and  a  spore? — A  seed 
sends  out  a  shoot  from  a  particular  point ;  a  spore  grows  from 
any  part. 

19.  How  are  seeds  and  spores  diffused  by  nature? — They  are 
carried  by  birds,  wafted  by  winds,  and  dispersed  in  various 
other  ways;  many  kinds  of  spores  are  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye,  and  no  one  can  tell  where  they  alight. 

20.  Has  not  nature  provided  so7ne  seeds  with  means  for  flying  ? 
— Yes;  the  seeds  of  the  dandelion,  thistle,  and  many  other 
plants,  are  furnished  with  a  soft  down  to  float  them  through 
the  air. 

21.  What  plants  fling  their  seeds  from  them  when  ripe? — The 
broom,  the  poppy,  and  others;  as  the  poppy-head  waves  on 
its  stalk  in  the  wind,  it  throws  out  its  small  seeds  to  some  dis- 
tance through  a  circular  row  of  holes. 

22.  Are  the  fungi  edible? — Only  a  few  kinds;  those  known 
as  mushrooms,  morels,  and  truffles  are  edible.  The  greater 
number,  including  what  are  called  toad-stools,  are  por, 
sonous. 

23.  Where  do  fungous  plants  usually  grow? — In  dark   and 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in   Mythology,  was    the   Food    of  the   Gruds. — See  page   248. 


THE    VEGETABLE    CREATION. 


67 


damp  situations,  and  where  there  are  any  decaying  substances 
to  afford  them  nourishment. 

24.  Mention  familiar  examples  of  cryptogamous  vegetation  in 
dwelling-houses? — Mould  and  mildew,  which  are  seen  chiefly 
where  there  is  damp.  The  dry-rot  in  timber  is  another 
example. 

25.  Have  plants  been  classified? — Yes;  according  to  certain 
peculiarities,  they  have  been  arranged  into  classes,  genera,  and 
species  by  Linnaeus,  a  Swedish  naturalist. 

26.  What  is  his  system  of  classificatio7t  called? — The  Linnaean 
system,  which  may  be  studied  from  books  of  botany. 

27.  Has  any  other  person  atie?npted  a  classification  ? — Yes  ; 
Jussieu,  a  French  naturalist,  classifies  plants  into  families 
chiefly  according  to  the  structure  of  the  flowers  and  fruit. 
His  system  has  since  been  much  improved  by  others,  and  is 
now  generally  adopted  as  in  harmony  with  nature. 

28.  Which  are  the  vegetables  most  directly  serviceable  to  man  ? 
— Grains,  esculent  roots  and  plants,  fibrous  plants,  medicinal 
plants,  and  fruit  and  timbej  trees. 

29.  What  other  name  is  given  to  the  grains? — Cereal  plants, 
so  called  from  Ceres,  the  heathen  goddess  of  corn.  The  most 
important  are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  maize  or  Indian  corn,  rye, 
rice,  and  millet ;  wheat  is  largely  used  for  bread.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  call  all  kinds  of  grain  corn. 

30.  What  is  the  principal  use  of  barley? — That  of  being 
made  into  malt,  from  which  ale,  beer,  and  spirits  are  chiefly 
prepared. 

31.  What  is  malt  ?—B3.r\ey,  which,  by  being  moistened 
with  water,  has  begun  to  germinate,  and  is  afterwards  dried. 

32.  What  are  the  uses  of  oats?— 0:its  are  much  used  as  the 
food  of  horses  ;  but  when  ground  into  meal  they  form  a 
nourishing  food  for  the  use  of  man. 

33.  Where  is  Indian  corn  largely  in  use? — In  the  United 
States  of  America,  and  in  various  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia. 

34.  Where  are  rice  and  tnillet  much  in  use  ? — In  India,  where 
they  form  the  principal  articles  of  subsistence. 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


68  THE    VEGETABLE   CREATION. 

35.  What  are  leguminous  or  pulse  crops  ? — Beans,  peas,  lentils, 
and  some  others  of  less  importance. 

36.  Are  there  numerous  grasses? — Yes  ;  they  are  exceedingly 
numerous,  particularly  in  England,  where  they  grow  in  per- 
fection. 

37.  What  are  artificial  grasses? — That  is  a  term  often 
misapplied  to  such  plants  as  clover  and  lucerne,  which  are 
not,  properly  speaking,  grasses,  but  are  sown  for  fodder. 

38.  Which  are  esculent  vegetables  ? — The  potato,  turnip,  cauli- 
flower, cabbage,  carrot,  beet-root,  parsnip,  leek,  and  onion 
are  those  which  chiefly  grow  in  European  countries. 

39.  Is  the  potato  a  native  of  Europe? — No ;  it  was  introduced 
from  Chili,  in  South  America,  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 

40.  What  are  tubers? — Roundish  or  oblorig  knobs  which 
grow  in  connection  with  the  roots  of  certain  plants.  Potatoes, 
yams,  and  arrow-root  are  examples  of  tubers. 

41.  What  are  bulbous  plants  ? — Those  which  have  roots  in 
the  form  of  bulbs. 

42.  What  is  a  bulb  ? — A  rounded  root  consisting  of  concen- 
tric layers  or  rings,  from  the  top  of  which  springs  the  stem; 
the  onion,  lily,  and  tulip  are  examples. 

43.  What  are  annuals  ? — Those  plants  which  grow  only  for 
a  year  or  season,  and  then  perish. 

44.  What  are  biennials  ? — Those  plants  which  continue  two 
years  ;  the  root,  stem,  and  leaves  generally  grow  the  first  year, 
and  the  flower  the  second ;  after  which  they  die. 

45.  What  are  perennials  ? — Plants  which  continue  a  number 
of  years. 

46.  What  are  herbaceous  plants? — Those  having  soft  stems, 
which  easily  perish ;  as  in  the  case  of  annuals  and  biennials, 
also  many  perennials. 

47.  What  are  or chideous plants? — A  particular  order  of  herb- 
aceous perennials,  prized  for  their  beautiful  flowers;  some 
of  the  tropical  species,  which  naturally  grow  on  the  boughs 
of  trees,  have  been  introduced  into  hot-houses,  where  they  are 
suspended  in  moss  or  on  blocks  of  wood. 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page   407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


THE    VEGETABLE    CREATION. 


69 


48.  What  are  evergreens  ? — Trees  and  shrubs  which  always 
retain  their  verdure,  such  as  the  fir,  holly,  and  laurel. 

49.  How  do  evergreens  shed  their  leaves? — The  oldest  leaves 
drop  off  in  spring,  when  new  ones  are  formed  on  fresh  shoots. 

50.  What  are  deciduous  trees  ? — Those  which  shed  their  leaves 
annually  on  the  approach  of  winter. 

51.  What  are  exogenous  trees? — Those  which  increase  in 
bulk  by  concentric  rings  beneath  the  bark  annually.  The 
trees  of  Great  Britain  are  of  this  kind,  such  as  the  oak,  ash, 
elm,  larch,  and  others,  the  age  of  which  can  be  reckoned  by 
the  number  of  concentric  rings. 

52.  What  are  endogenous  trees  ?—T\vos&  which  increase  in 
bulk  by  growth  in  the  centre  and  upwards,  of  which  the  palm 
is  ah  example. 

53.  What  are  exotics .?— Plants  which  have  been  introduced 
from  foreign  countries. 

54.  What  are  indigenous  plants .?— Those  which  grow  natur- 
ally in  the  country — not  exotics. 

55.  What  is  7neant  by  the  acclimatizing  of  plants  ? — Habitua- 
ting them  to  a  climate  foreign  to  that  to  which  they  have 
been  accustomed. 

56.  Mention  some  of  the  plants  which  are  largely  in  use. — To- 
bacco, cotton,  flax,  and  hemp,  sugar-cane,  tea  and  coffee  plants 
— all  of  which,  except  flax  and  hemp,  are  grown  in  countries 
foreign  to  Great  Britain. 

57.  Which  are  the  more  remarkable  fruit-trees  and  shrubs  ? — 
The  vine,  date,  fig,  olive,  orange,  lemon,  peach,  apricot,  walnut 
plum,  cherry,  apple,  and  pear,  are  the  most  notable  in  Euro- 
pean countries. 

58.  Where  does  the  vi7ie  prificipally grow  ? — It  grows  in  warm 
eastern  countries,  and  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
but  it  is  now  grown  to  a  large  extent  in  France,  Italy,  and  on 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine  ;  also  in  America  and  Australia. 

59.  Which  are  the  smaller  fruits  knoiun  i7i  Great  Britain  ? — 
The  gooseberry,  strawberry,  raspberry,  and  currant — which 
grow  in  several  varieties  and  in  great  profusion. 

60.  Which  are  the  principal  timber  trees  in  European  countries  f 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


70  THE  ANIMAL     CREATION. 

— The  oak,  ash,  elm,  beech,  birch,  hawthorn,  sycamore,  hme, 
chestnut,  and  several  kinds  of  pine. 

61.  Which  of  these  trees  yield  the  strongest  timber  ? — The  oak, 
chestnut,  ash,  and  elm,  which  are  of  slow  growth ;  the  most 
durable  of  ail  being  the  oak, 

62.  Which  are  found  to  be  the  most  valuable  for  general  pur- 
poses?— The  different  kinds  of  pine,  particularly  the  larch, 
of  which  large  plantations  are  formed. 

63.  Which  of  these  trees  are  valuable  for  their  bark? — The 
oak  and  larch,  the  bark  of  which  is  used  for  tanning  leather. 

64.  Which  foreign  tree  is  most  prized  for  its  timber  ? — The 
mahogany  tree,  which  grows  in  the  central  parts  of  America, 
and  attains  to  a  great  size ;  also  the  teak,  which  is  valuable 
for  ship-building. 

65.  Which  is  the  tallest  tree  known? — The  Wellingtonia  Gi- 
gantea,  which  grows  in  California,  and  reaches  a  height  of 
one  hundred  and  eighty  feet. 


THE  ANIMAL  CREATION. 

1.  What  does  the  Animal  Creation  comprehend? — All  living 
creatures,  from  the  most  minute  to  the  most  highly  organized ; 
at  the  head  of  the  whole  is  man. 

2.  How  is  the  anitnal  creation  sojnetimes  designated? — As  the 
Animal  Kingdom;  the  science  which  treats  of  it  is  called 
Zoology,  from  two  Greek  words  signifying  a  discourse  on  ani- 
mals. 

3.  What  are  the  ideas  that  first  occur  to  the  mind  concerning 
animals? — We  are  struck  with  their  vast  multiplicity  and 
wonderful  diversity  of  form  and  character,  the  provision 
made  for  their  support,  and  their  adaptation  to  the  conditions 
in  which  they  are  placed— all  which  ideas  are  suggestive  of 
the  infinite  wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  Almighty. 

4.  Is  any  animal  insignifica7it?—^o\  there  are  many  very 
humble,     and  many   very  troublesome  creatures  ;  but  when 


The   Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793     to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815.— See   page    368. 


S 


THE  ANIMAL  CREA  TION. 


71 


closely  examined,  all  invite  our  wonder,  and  each  is  seen  to 
be  an  essential  part  of  the  plan  of  creation. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  ''lower  animals?" — All  ani- 
mals except  man,  who  is  the  higher,  and  in  the  language  of 
Scripture,  has  been  endowed  with  "  dominion  over  the  fish  of 
the  sea,  and  over  the  fowl  of  the  air,  and  over  every  living 
thing  that  moveth  on  the  earth." 

6.  Occupying  this  high  position,  what  is  the  duty  of  ma?i  to 
the  lower  anitnals? — His  duty  is  to  rule  them  with  kindness, 
to  make  use  of  them,  but  not  to  abuse  them,  and  even  in  kill- 
ing them  for  food  or  for  any  other  necessary  purpose,  to  in- 
flict as  little  pain  as  possible. 

7.  Do  the  lower  animals  prey  on  each  other  ? — Such  is  observed 
to  be  the  case  with  many  orders  of  animals,  and  is  apparently 
according  to  a  design  in  nature  to  restrain  an  undue  abun- 
dance of  certain  kinds  of  animal  life. 

8.  Give  some  examples. — Swallows  and  some  other  birds 
clear  the  air  of  gnats,  flies,  and  other  insects  ;  these  birds  are 
in  turn  killed  by  hawks ;  toads  clear  the  ground  of  slugs  and 
other  crawling  creatures ;  cats  destroy  mice;  weasels  rid  the 
fields  of  vermin ;  lions,  tigers,  and  panthers  keep  down  the 
number  of  herbivorous  beasts,  and  so  on.  The  examples  are 
endless. 

9.  Has  nature  pursued  any  plan  for  ridding  the  ground  of 
dead  animals?— Yqs;  the  means  ordained  for  this  purpose 
are  very  remarkable— they  consist  in  giving  certain  crea- 
tures an  appetite  for  decaying  animal  substances. 

10.  Give  exajjtples.—YuMnxQs  have  the  faculty  of  descr5ing 
dead  bodies  at  great  distances,  and  immediately  proceed  to  de- 
vour them  ;  but  the  destruction  of  such  offensive,  substances 
is  effected  quite  as  well  by  certain  kinds  of  beetles,  ants,  and 
also  by  maggots. 

11.  Haw  are  fnaggots  brought  into  connection  with  these  de- 
caying substances  ?—T\i%y  are  produced  from  eggs  laid  by 
certain  flies,  which,  like  vultures,  wing  their  way  to  dead 
bodies.  When  the  maggots  have  accomplished  their  object, 
they  undergo  a  transformation  which  brings  them  to  the  con- 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


1 


72  THE  ANIMAL    CREATION. 

dition  of  flies,  and  these  proceed  to  new  subjects  for  destruc> 
tion. 

12,-  What  is  jneant  by  the  balance  of  nature? — It  has  been 
thought  that  nature  has  adjusted  a  balance  between  the  pro- 
duction and  destruction  of  animal  life,  and  that  man  may  in- 
discreetly interfere  to  disturb  this  arrangement. 

13.  Mention  an  instatice  of  man  having  disturbed  the  balance 
of  animal  life  ? — In  France,  so  many  small  birds  have  been  in- 
discreetly killed,  that  the  vegetation  is  in  many  places  des- 
troyed by  caterpillars.  Had  the  birds  been  let  alone,  they 
would  have  destroyed  the  caterpillars,  and  thus  the  "  balance 
of  nature"  would  not  have  been  deranged. 

14.  How  does  climate  affect  animal  life? — In  cold  countries 
the  number  of  animals  is  limited,  while  in  tropical  regions 
the  abundance  of  animal  life,  particularly  as  regards  insects 
and  reptiles,  is  excessive  and  troublesome. 

15.  How  were  animals  at  one  tiine  classed? — As  beasts  or 
quadrupeds,  birds,  fishes,  reptiles,  worms,  and  insects. 

16.  Why  was  this  classification  abandoned? — Because  it  was 
found  to  be  imperfect,  and  left  out  a  number  of  creatures 
that  could  not  be  included  in  any  of  these  divisions. 

17.  Who  attempted  a  new  classificatiojt  ? — Cuvier,  a  French 
naturalist,  whose  arrangement  is  now  adopted.  According 
to  this  plan,  the  whole  animal  kingdom  is,  in  the  first  place, 
divided  into  four  provinces  or  sub-kingdoms. 

18.  Mention  these  sub-kingdoms. — I.  Radiata,  or  Rayed  Ani' 
mals;  2.  Mollusca,  or  Pulpy  Animals  ;  3.  Articulata,  or  Jointed 
Animals;  and,  4.  Vertebrata,  or  Back-boned  Animals. 

19.  How  are  these  departments  subdivided? — ^Each  is  divided 
into  classes ;  classes  are  divided  into  orders  ;  orders  into  fam- 
ilies and  genera ;  and  the  genera  into  species  and  varieties. 

20.  Does  the  systein  inchide  all  living  creatures  whatsoei'er  ? — 
It  is  designed  to  do  so  ;  but  new  animals,  particularly  of  lower 
kinds,  are  constantly  being  discovered,  and  they  require  to  be 
added. 

21.  What  is  meant  by  species  ? — It  is  a  term  applied  to  any 
form  which  is  maintained  uniformly  through  a  succession  of 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302. 

i 


THE  ANIMAL  CREA  TION.  y. 

generations.  For  example,  the  horse  is  one  species,  and  the 
ass  another ;  and  though  there  is  a  resemblance  between  the 
two,  each  continues  its  own  species  alone. 

22.  Are  there  not  exceptions  to  this  rz^te  ?~Only  in  a  slight 
degree.  The  horse  and  ass  produce  a  hybrid  called  the  mule, 
but  the  mule  has  no  descendants.  Nature  seems  to  inter- 
pose a  check  to  such  mixture  of  races,  however  much  they 
lesemble  each  other. 

23.  Are  all  dogs  of  one  species  ?—Y qs  ;  but  they  are  of  dis- 
tmctly-marked  varieties,  each  of  which  it  is  important  to  pre- 
serve pure,  for  any  intermixture  produces  deterioration. 

24.  Are  not  different  varieties  of  sheep  sofneti^nes  blended  with 
advantage  ?~ThQY  are  ;  but  such  artificial  breeds  are  of  temp- 
orary value  ;  they  require  constant  care,  and  often  also  re- 
newal—nature here,  again,  interposing  to  preserve  distinct- 
ness of  variety. 

25.  Can  we  corijecture  what  nature  7neans  by  preserving  dis- 
tinct?tess  in  classes,  species,  and  varieties  of  animals  ? — It  seems 
part  of  a  wise  design  to  prevent  confusion  in  the  animal  cre- 
ation. 

26.  What  are  gregariotis  animals .?— Those  which  like  to  live 
in  flocks  and  herds  ;  sheep  and  cattle  are  gregarious,  and  so  are 
many  birds,  such  as  rooks,  and  a  number  of  smaller  birds  at 
certain  seasons. 

27.  What  are  pairing  animals  ? — Those  which  pair,  male  and 
female,  for  a  season,  in  order  mutually  to  support  their  young 
until  they  are  able  to  seek  food  for  themselves.  Small  birds 
offer  an  example  of  pairing  animals.    A  few  birds  pair  for  life. 

28.  What  are  oviparous  animals? — Those  produced  from 
eggs  ;  they  are  called  oviparous  from  two  Latin  words,  ovu7n,  an 
^gg,  and  pario,  I  produce.     Birds  are  oviparous. 

29.  What  are  viviparous  animals? — Those  produced  in  a 
living  state  ;  they  are  called  viviparous  from  the  Latin  words 
vivus,  alive,  and  pario,  I  produce. 

30.  What  are  ovoviparous  animals  ? — Those  within  which  the 
eggs  are  hatched  before  the  young  are  produced ;  the  common 
hzard  is  an  example. 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278, 


74  THE  ANIMAL  CREA  TION. 

31.  What  are  digitigrade  quadrupeds  ? — Those  which  walk 
on  their  toes,  of  which  the  dog  and  cat  are  examples  ;  the 
term  digitigrade  is  from  the  the  Latin  digitus,  a  finger  or  toe, 
2Ln6.  gradior,  I  walk. 

32.  What  are  plantigrade  quadrupeds? — Those  which  walk 
on  the  sole  of  the  foot,  of  which  the  bear  is  an  example; 
the  term  plantigrade  is  from  the  Latin  planta,  the  sole  of  the 
foot,  dindgradior,  I  walk. 

33.  What  are  hybernating  animals? — Those  which  pass  the 
winter  in  a  secluded  and  dormant  state,  of  which  the  bat  is 
an  example ;  the  term  hybernating  is  from  the  Latin  hiberno,  I 
winter. 

34.  What  are  domesticated  aniinals  ? — Those  which  are 
usually  reared  in  a  tame  state  in  association  with  man,  such 
as  the  dog,  cat,  fowls,  pigeons,  canary  birds,  the  horse,  ass,  ox, 
and  some  others. 

35.  What  are  amphibious  animals? — Those  which  can 
live  either  in  water  or  on  land,  such  as  the  frog;  they  are 
called  amphibious,  from  two  Greek  words  signifying  a  double 
life. 

36.  What  are  parasitic  animals  ?— Those  which  habitually 
live  within  or  upon  other  animals  from  which  they  draw  their 
nourishment.     There  are  parasitic  plants  as  well  as  animals. 

37.  What  are  reckoned  the  lowest  forms  of  ammal  life  ?-^ 
Those  belonging  to  the  Radiata. 

38.  Mention  sojne  of  the  Radiata. — The  Infusoria,  or  ani- 
malcules, so  small  as  to  be  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  and 
usually  found  in  stagnant  water,  also  in  sour  beer,  and  some 
other  liquids. 

39.  Are  these  sfnall  creatures  produced  spontaneously  in  the 
liquids  in  which  they  are  found? — No ;  no  animals  whatever 
can  be  produced  but  from  the  germ  of  previous  animals  hke 
itself.  In  animal,  as  in  vegetable  life,  there  is  no  spontaneous 
production. 

40.  Was  not  the  contrary  once  believed? — It  was.  In  ancient 
times  there  prevailed  a  belief  that  certain  insects  were  pro- 
duced by  putrefaction ;  and  not  long  since,  there  was  a  notion 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133. 


CO 


THE  ANIMAL    CREATION. 


75 


that  small  eels  could  be  produced  by  horse-hairs  dropped  into 
stagnant  water.     All  such  notions  are  now  exploded. 

41.  But  have  not  conditions  a  powerful  effect  on  anintal  life? 
— Certainly;  but  the  conditions— as  in  the  souring  of  beer — 
only  aid  the  principles  of  reproduction.  Without  the  condi- 
tions, the  germ  of  the  animal  would  remain  dormant. 

42.  What  is  the  appearance  of  the  Infusoria  ? — They  are  of 
various  grotesque  forms.  Some  resemble  branches  of  plants, 
some  are  like  tulips,  and  some  are  twisted  like  screws.    Those 


Various  forms  of  Animalcules. 

of  one  order  are  called  Rotifera,  from  the  rotatory  motion  of 
certain  organs  which  surround  the  mouth. 

43.  How  do  these  strange  creatures  propagate? — Some  lay 
eggs  ;  but  the  greater  number  divide  their  bodies  into  parts, 
each  of  which  becomes  a  new  animal. 

44.  What  are  Zoophytes? — Radiata,  so  named  from  their  re- 
semblance to  growing  plants,  and  which  seem  to  form  a  con- 
necting link  between  animal  and  vegetable  life. 

45.  What  are  the  Corallifera  ? — One  of  the  orders  of  zoo- 
phytes, which  raise  great  structures  of  coral  from  the  bottom 
of  the  sea. 

46.  Have  sponges  any  connection  with  this  order? — Yes; 
they  are  allied  to  the  corallifera,  and  are  found  chiefly  in 
the  Red  and  Mediterranean  Seas.  What  we  call  sponge  is  the 
framework  of  the  zoophyte  cleared  of  the  living  matter. 

47.  What  are  Polypi? — A  class  of  the  radiata,  so  called  from 
two  Greek  words  signifying  many  feet.  Some  of  them  form 
floating  fleshy  masses,  without  organs  of  sense,  and  possess 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist. — See  page  65, 


O 


76  THE  ANIMAL    CREATION. 

numerous  arms  or  tentacula.     When  cut  in  pieces,  each  be- 
comes  an  individual  polypus. 

48.  What  are  the  Mediisce  ? — Another  class  of  the  radiata, 
resembling  floating  masses  of  jelly,  with  depending  tentacula, 
which  may  be  seen  in  the  ocean  and  also  near  the  coast. 
The  Physalis  is  a  good  example. 

49.  What  can  be  the  use  of  the  medusce? — They  are  probably 
of  use  in  furnishing  food  to  whales,  also  to  the  herring,  and 
some  other  kinds  of  sea-fish. 

50.  What  are  the  Entozoa  ? — They  are  a  class  of  the  radiata, 
which  parasitically  live  within  the  bodies  of  other  animals. 

51.  Mentwn  07te  of  the  entozoa. — The  hydatid,  which  is  some- 
times found  in  the  brains  of  sheep,  causing  a  fatal  disease  ; 
the  germs  of  such  creatures  are  understood  to  be  introduced 
through  the  food. 

52.  What  kind  of  animals  are  the  Mollusca,  which  form  the 
second  sub-kingdom  ? — They  consist  of  several  classes  of  soft 
and  pulpy  animals,  including  some  shell-fish  and  snails. 

53.  What  are  univalve  shells? — Those  having  one  shell,  of 
which  there  is  an  example  in  the  limpet. 

54.  What  are  bivalve  shells? — Those  having  two  shells,  of 
which  there  is  an  example  in  the  oyster. 

55.  What  is  meant  by  Conchology  ? — The  branch  of  zoology 
connected  with  the  study  of  shells. 

56.  What  animals  are  included  in  the  sub-kijigdom  Articu- 
lata? — Certain  jointed  animals,  of  which  there  is  a  well-known 
class  called  the  Crustacea  ;  in  it  are  included  crabs,  lobsters, 
prawns,  and  barnacles. 

57.  What  is  the  barnacle  ? — It  is  a  shell-fish  which  attaches 
itself  by  a  stem  to  the  bottom  of  ships,  or  any  floating  piece 
of  wood  ;  also  to  branches  of  trees  Which  hang  over  and  touch 
the  salt  water.  At  one  time  it  was  thought  that  the  barnacle 
hatched  a  kind  of  goose — a  belief  now  known  to  be  quite 
erroneous. 

58.  Mention  another  well-known  class  in  the  Articulata. — The 
class  Insecta,  in   which   are   comprehended   an  innumerable 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


Of  rj/^  P 


^NlYERs 


^<iLL^ 


iry 


RNlt. 


METAMORPHOSES    OF    THE     WOOD- GIRDLING    BEETLE. —  77 


The    Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47. 


THE   ANIMAL    CREATION. 


77 


variety  of  genera  and  species,   some    being  small  creeping 
things,  others  being  winged. 

59.  Mention  so77ie  of  the  insect  orders. — The  Coleoptera 
(beetles,  glow-worm),  the  Orthoptera  (grasshoppers),  Hymenop' 
tera  (bees),  Lepidoptera  (butterflies,  moths),  and  Diptera 
(flies). 


Examples  of  Insects  belonging-  to  the  orders  Coleoptera  (5),  Orthoptera  (1), 
Hymenoptera  (4),  Lepidoptera  (3),  and  Diptera  (2). 

60.  What  is  ineant  by  "  insect  transforjnation  f  — The  change 
which  insects  undergo.  The  butterfly,  for  example,  lays  a 
great  number  of  eggs,  from  each  of  which  issues  a  ringed 
worm  called  the  larva,  or,  familiarly,  the  caterpillar.  In  time 
it  assumes  a  shorter  and  harder  form,  and  falls  into  a  state  of 
torpor,  in  which  it  is  called  the  chrysalis.  At  length  the  ex- 
terior bursts,  and  there  issues  the  butterfly  or  perfect  insect. 

61.  What  is  remarkable  about  the  eyes  of  insects? — They  are 
usually  much  projected,  and  consist  of  a  vast  number  of 
distinct  lenses,  which  enable  them  to  see  on  all  sides. 

62.  How  many  lenses  have  been  counted  iti  the  eye  of  a  butter- 
fly? — Seventeen  thousand,  making  for  the  two  eyes  thirty- 
four  thousand,  each  possessing  the  power  of  an  eye.  In  addi- 
tion to  composite  eyes  of  this  kind,  the  bee  has  three  simple 
eyes  on  the  top  of  its  head. 

63.  What  are  the  antenncB  of  insects  ? — The  antennae  are 
feelers — sometimes  long,  sometimes  branched  and  feathered 
in  the  most  beautiful  manner,  and  with  endless  variety — pro- 
jected from  the  front  of  the  head,  by  which  they  can  feel 
their  way  in  the  dark,  or  examine  the  nature  of  any  object 
which  they  approach. 

64.  What  appears  remarkable  in  the  house-fly? — Its  power  of 
walking  with  its  back  downwards  on  the  ceiling.     The  soles 


o 

u 

c 

s 

% 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


yS  THE  ANIMAL    CREATION. 

of  its  feet  are  provided  with  suckers,  and  the  air  being  ex- 
hausted at  every  step,  the  animal  holds  readily  on. 

65.  Is  there  anything  else  curious  about  the  house-fly? — Like 
the  bee  and  some  other  insects,  the  house-fly  possesses  a 
trunk,  or  proboscis,  with  which  it  draws  up  food  to  its 
mouth. 

66.  How  ?nany  legs  have  the  bee,  house-fly,  and  other  flying 
insects  ? — Six. 

(i"].  Have  not  some  insects  the  faculty  of  spinning  ? — Yes ;  the 
most  remarkable  is  the  Bo?nbyx  mori,  or  silk-worm. 

68.  Explain  how  this  insect  spins. — When  the  silk-worm  is 
in  the  caterpillar  or  larva  state,  and  about  to  become  torpid, 
it  winds  from  its  mouth  a  clue  of  viscous  thread,  in  which  it 
enshrouds  itself.  This  covering  is  called  Wi^  cocoon,  from 
which  the  fine  thread  is  unwound  by  machinery,  and  forms 
silk. 

69.  Do  spiders  belong  to  the  sub-kingdom-  of  a?timals  f — Yes, 
the  house-spider,  tarantula,  and  scorpion  are  included  in  the 
order  Arachnida.  The  house-spider  and  small  gossamer 
spider,  as  is  well  known,  spin  fine  threads  from  the  hinder 
part  of  their  bodies,  with  which  they  weave  webs  to  catch 
flies^all  have  eight  legs. 

70.  Mention  a  very  small  animal  belonging  to  the  Arachnida  ? 
— The  mite  in  decayed  cheese,  which  has  eight  legs,  and 
breathes  through  tubes  interspersed  throughout  its  body. 

71.  What  is  the  fourth  sub-kingdom  in  the  atii7nal  creation? — 
The  vertebrata,  or  animals  with  back-bones. 

72.  State  how  the  vertebrata  are  classified. — They  constitute 
four  classes — Pisces,  or  Fishes  ;  RepttUa,  or  reptiles  ;  Aves,  or 
Birds ;  and  Mammalia,  or  suck-giving  animals. 

73.  What  is  remarkable  about  Fishes? — They  swim  in  the 
water  and  propel  themselves  by  fins ;  they  breathe  through 
gills,  and  their  blood  is  cold. 

74.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  Reptilia  ? — They  mostly  creep 
on  four  feet,  and,  like  the  fish,  are  cold-blooded;  but  they 
breathe  with  lungs. 

75.  Mention  some  of  the  orders  of  reptiles. — The  Sauria  com' 


CrcEsus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


THE  ^NIMAL  CREATION, 


79 


pose  an  important  order,  in  which  are  included  the  crocodile, 
alHgator,  hzard,  and  chameleon.  The  order  Ophidia  includes 
serpents  and  snakes.  The  tortoise  and  turtle  are  included  in 
the  order  Chelonia,  and  the  toad  and  frog  in  the  Batrachia. 

76.  What  is  the  early  condition  of  toads  and  frogs  ? — They  pass 
through  the  state  of  tadpoles,  living  like  fishes,  before  the^; 
appear  as  perfect  animals. 

']'].  Describe  the  Birds,  or  third  class  of  Vertebrata. — All  are 
covered  with  feathers,  they  walk  on  two  feet,  they  fly  by 
means  of  wings,  and  they  are  reproducer!  from  eggs. 

78.  How  ma7iy  orders  are  in  this  class? — Seven — the  A^/^i 
tores,  or  Swimmers  ;  the  Gralla fores,  or  Waders  ;  the  Cursores, 
or  Runners  ;  the  Rasores,  or  Scrapers  ;  the  hiscssores,  or  Perch- 
ing Birds ;  the  Raptores,  or  Rapacious  Birds ;  and  the  Scan* 
sores,  or  Climbing  Birds. 

79.  Mention  soTne  of  the  best-know7i  Natatores. — Ducks,  geese, 
swans,  and  sea-gulls,  which,  like  others  in  the  same  order,  are 
distinguished  by  web-feet  for  swimming. 

80.  Mention  some  of  the  Grallatores.—T\\Q  stork,  heron,  crane, 
pelican,  and  snipe.    All  have  long  legs,  enabling   them  to 


Examples  of  each  of  the  Seven  Orders  of  Birds. 

wade  in  marshes,  on  the  sea-shore,  and  within  the  margin  of 
rivers,  where,  with  their  long  bills,  they  pick  up  small  fish  and 
other  food. 

81.  What  birds  are  included  in  the  Cursores? — The  emu,  cas- 
sowary, nandu,  and  ostrich,  all  of  which  possess  long  and  pow- 
erful limbs  for  running. 

82.  Explain  the  nature  of  the  Rasores. — The  rasores,  as  their 
name  imports,  are  birds  which  scrape  for  their  food  ;  familiar 
examples  are  the  common  hen,  pheasant,  turkey,  peacock 


Sound    Travels   at   the    Rate    of  1,125    Feet  per   Second. — See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,   1769;    Died,  1821 — See  page  411, 


80 


THE  ANIMAL  CREA  TION. 


grouse,  and  pigeon.    The   rasores  are  otherwise  called  Gal 
linaceous  birds,  from  the  Latin  word  gallus,  a  cock. 

83.  How  are  the  pigeon  tribes  separately  distinguished? — As 
the  CohimbidcE,  from  the  Latin,  columba,  a  pigeon.  They  em- 
brace numerous  species  and  varieties,  the  turtle-dove  being 
one  of  them. 

84.  What  birds  are  included  in  the  order  Raptor es? — The 
vulture,  eagle,  falcon,  hawk,  and  owl,  are  well-known  exam- 
ples of  this  rapacious  order  of  birds. 

85.  Which  are  the  Insessores  or  perching  birds? — Many  small 
birds,  including  the  sparrow,  thrush,  swallow,  nightingale,  lark, 
bullfinch,  magpie,  crow,  and  rook  ;  also  a  beautiful  animal,  the 
bird  of  paradise,  and  many  others. 

^6.  Mention  some  examples  of  the  Scansores,  or  climbing  birds, 
—The  parrot,  cockatoo,  and  wood-pecker. 


Examples  of  Animals  belonging  to  the  orders  Marsupialia,  Insectivora, 
Rodentia,  Ruminantia,  Pachydermata,  and  Carnivora. 

87.  Describe  the  class  Mammalia,  or  suck-giving  animals.-^- 
This  is  the  highest  kind  of  animals,  as  regards  either  organiza- 
tion or  intelligence ;  the  class  is  divided  into  various  orders. 

88.  Refer  to  some  of  the  orders.— OnQ  consists  of  the  Marsupi- 
alia, or  pouched  animals,  among  which  are  included  the  kan- 
garoo and  opossum,  which  carry  their  young  in  pouches 
Another  order  is  the  Monotremata,  to  which  the  ornithorhyn- 
chus  of  Australia  belongs. 

89.  Mention  another  order,— The  Insectivora,  which  includes 
hedgehogs,  moles,  shrews,  and  other  obscure  animals. 

90.  Proceed. — The  order  Rodentia,  or  gnawing  animals,  com- 
prehending the  squirrel,  rat,  mouse,  beaver,  hare,  and  guinea' 
pig. 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. —  See    page    ii8. 


THE  ANIMAL  CREATION.  8 1 


«  !  91.  Are  there  not  some  marine  mammalia? — Yes;  the  order 

w  of  the  Cetacea,  which  includes  dolphins,  porpoises,  and  whales ; 

and  the  family  of  Phocidcs,  or  seals. 

92.  What  animals  are  included  in  the  order  Ricminantia  ? — 
The  camel,  stag,  antelope,  goat,  sheep,  cow,  giraffe,  and  buf- 
falo ;  all  live  on  grass,  and  derive  their  name  as  an  order, 
from  "ruminating,"  or  chewing  the  cud. 

93.  Which  compose  the  order  Pachydermata  ? — This  term  im- 
plies animals  with  a  thick  skin  ;  in  this  order  are  included  the 
elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  tapir,  hog,  horse,  and 
ass. 

94.  Which  animals  are  comprehended  in  the  order  Carnivora  f 
— Those  which  live  on  flesh,  and  are  provided  with  teeth  for 
the  purpose  ;  in  this  order  are  very  ferocious  wild  animals. 

95.  How  is  the  order  carnivora  divided? — Into  five  families, 
the  first  of  which  is  the  Felidce,  or  cat-tribe,  including  the 
domestic  and  wild  cat,  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  and  lynx  ;  all  pos- 
sessing great  power  of  leaping  on  and  devouring  prey. 

96.  Which  is  the  second  family  of  carnivora  ? — The  Canidcsoi 
dog-tribe,  which  includes  the  dog,  wolf,  fox,  and  jackal. 

97.  Which  a7timals  compose  the  order  Cheiroptera? — The 
cheiroptera  are  generally  creatures  which  fly  about  by  night, 

2  j       and    live    on    insects,  of    which  the  bat    is     a    well-known 
^  specimen. 

«  I  98.    What  does  LinncEUS  call  this  order  of  animals  ? — He  em- 

«  j       ploys  the  Latin  term  Vespertilio,  which  is  significant  of  their 
flying  about  in  the  evening. 

99.  What  animals  compose  the  order  Quadrumana  ? — All 
kinds  of  monkeys  and  lemurs  ;  the  term  quadrumana  signify- 
ing four  hands,  which  these  creatures  may  be  said  to  possess 
for  the  sake  of  climbing.  In  this  order  are  included  the 
orang-outang,  the  chimpanzee,  and  the  gorilla — animals  ap- 
proaching in  figure  to  man. 

100.  To  what  order  is  7nan  assigned? — The  order  Bimana,  ol 
two-handed,  in  which  he  stands  alone. 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000     Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


82  ETHNOLOGY. 

ETHNOLOGY. 

1.  What  is  Ethnology?— It  is  the  branch  of  knowledge 
which  treats  of  the  varieties  or  different  races  of  men,  theil 
manners,  and  character  ;  the  term  is  from  the  Greek  ethnos,  a 
nation. 

2.  In  what  respect  is  man  at  the  head  of  the  animal  creation  ? 
--He  is  so  as  regards  superiority  of  structure  and  intelH- 
gence,  and  as  possessing  a  moral  nature,  or  consciousness 
of  right  and  wrong. 

3.  Why  is  man  said  to  be  an  accountable  being  f— Because 
being  able  to  distinguish  right  from  wrong,  he  is  accountable 
to  God  for  his  actions. 

4.  In  what  respect  does  the  intelligence  of  the  lower  animals 
differ  fro7n  that  of  man  f— The  intelligence  of  the  lower 
animals  is  of  an  inferior  character,  ordinarily  defined  by  the 
term  instinct,  by  which  they  are  guided,  and  can  be  cultivated 
only  to  a  limited  extent;  whereas  the  intelligence  of  man  is 
large  and  expansible,  and  maybe  transmitted  according  to  the 
lessons  of  experience  from  generation  to  generation. 

5.  What  are  the  varieties  in  the  race  of  man  ? — There  are 
usually  said  to  be  five  varieties— the  Caucasian,  the  Mongo- 
lian, the  Malayan,  the  American  Indian,  and  the  Negro. 


Examples  of  the  Caucasian,  Mongolian,  Malayan,  American  Indian, 
and  Negro  races. 

6.  Describe  the  Caucasian. — The  Caucasian  variety  of  man  is 
white,  or  nearly  so,  and  is  the  most  improvable  of  all  the 
races;  it  is  the  Caucasian  variety  which  inhabits  the  greater 
part  of  Europe. 

7.  Why  is  the  race  called  Caucasian?— Bec?Mse  it  was  sup- 


Iniiials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People. — See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Grods. — See  page   248. 


ETHNOLOGY.  83 

posed  to  have  originated  in,  and  spread  out  from,  the  mouni 
tainous  district  of  the  Caucasus  in  Asia. 

8.  W hat  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  race? — It  is  that  branch  of  the 
Caucasian  variety  which  takes  its  name  from  certain  German 
or  Teutonic  tribes  who  settled  in  Great  Britain. 

9.  What  is  the  Celtic  race? — It  is  another  branch  of  the 
Caucasian  variety,  which  settled  in  the  British  Islands,  in 
France,  and  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  at  a  very  early  period. 

10.  Describe  the  Mongolian  variety. — The  Mongolians  are 
so  called  from  the  Mongols,  a  people  of  Central  Asia ;  they 
have  squarish  heads,  fiattish  faces,  olive  complexions,  and 
eyes  pointing  obliquely  downwards,  and  they  are  remarkable 
for  adherence  to  old  usages  ;  they  inhabit  Central  Asia,  China, 
Japan,  and  some  other  countries. 

11.  Describe  the  Malayan  variety. — The  Malayans  are  so 
called  from  the  peninsula  of  Malaya,  in  India  beyond  the 
Ganges;  they  have  a  brown  skin,  heads  slightly  narrowed  at 
the  top,  and  are  reputed  to  be  fierce  and  often  treacherous. 

12.  Describe  the  American  Indian  variety. — The  American 
Indians  have  a  narrow  head,  red  or  copper-colored  skins,  and 
can  scarcely  be  induced  to  adopt  settled  habits. 

13.  Describe  the  Negro  variety. — The  negro  races  have  black 
skins  and  eyes,  receding  foreheads, woolly  hair;  in  character, 
they  are  lively  and  dodle,  and  disposed  to  submit  to  a  state 
of  servitude ;  their  native  country  is  Africa,  whence  great 
numbers  have  been  carried  off  as  slaves. 

14.  What  is  a  slave? — A  slave  is  a  person  deprived  of  his 
civil  rights,  and  who,  being  bought  like  one  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals, is  dependent  in  all  respects  on  the  will  of  his  owner. 

1 5.  What  are  civil  rights  ? — The  right  which  ever)'  one  has 
by  nature  to  dispose  of  his  own  person,  to  cultivate  his  mind, 
and  to  improve  his  condition  by  any  honest  line  of  industry 
that  is  suitable  to  his  capacity — the  enjoyment  of  such  rights 
being  C2\\tdi  freedom. 

16.  What  are  serfs? — Serfs  were  persons  held  in  perpetual 
bondage,  sometimes  as  domestic  servants,  but  more  frequently 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in    Mythology,  Numbered    12. — See  page   242. 


64  ETHNOLOGY. 

as  rural  laborers,  who  were  sold  along  with  the  estates  on 
which  they  lived. 

17.  Was  the  condition  qfserfdom  common? — Yes;  serfdom 
or  some  other  form  of  slavery  was  common  in  all  ancient 
nations;  and,  until  lately,  it  existed  to  a  large  extent  in 
Russia. 

1 8.  What  circumstances  tend  to  degrade  races  of  men  ? — A 
long  course  of  misusage,  want  of  proper  food  and  raiment, 
want  of  education,  and  hopelessness  in  the  future,  all  tend  to 
brutalize  races. 

19.  Is  color  in  the  skin  an  effect  of  circumstances? — To  a  cer- 
tain extent  this  is  the  case,  it  being  observable  that  exposure 
to  the  sun  in  hot  climates  tends  to  darken  the  complexion  ; 
but  from  whatever  cause,  the  color  in  the  negro  races  is  not 
on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  but  seems  part  of  the  natural  con- 
stitution. 

20.  Explain  the  nature  of  the  skin. — The  skin  is  a  porous 
covering  of  three  layers;  the  outer  layer,  which  is  very  thin, 
is  called  the  cuticle  or  epidermis  ;  and  the  innermost  is  the 
cutis  vera,  or  true  skin ;  between  the  two  is  a  layer  of  pulpy 
net-work,  called  the  rete  mucosmn,  in  which  is  the  coloring 
matter  of  the  darker  races. 

21.  What  are  the  senses? — Sight,  hearing,  taste,  smell,  and 
touch. 

22.  Where  is  the  recognized  seat  of  the  mind? — In  the  brain, 
or  centre  of  sensation  ;  an  organ  charged  by  Almighty  Power 
with  the  functions  of  thought — the  mind  itself,  which  acts 
through  the  brain,  being  regarded  as  a  spiritual  essence  des- 
tined to  survive  the  dissolution  of  matter. 

23.  Are  we  to  understand  that  man  consists  of  two  things,  a 
perishable  body  and  an  immortal  spirit? — Yes  ;  it  is  on  the  basis 
of  this  immortality  of  the  spirit  or  soul  after  death  that  man 
rests  his  religious  hopes  and  feelings. 

24.  What  are  heathens?  —V^O'^X^  who  have  no  pioper  con- 
ception of  the  true  God,  and  worship  idols  ;  the  word  pagans 
has  a  similar  meaning. 

25.  In  what  state  are  mankind  at  present  ? — A  large  number 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in    Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page  407. 


SERFS   IN    RUSSIA.       PUNISHMENT    OF    THE    KNOUT 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


ca 


CHRONOLOGY.  85 

are  in  the  condition  of  heathens  and  savages;  others  are  in  a 
naif-civilized  state,  and  in  the  way  of  improvement;  and  lastly, 
there  are  nations,  such  as  those  of  Europe  generally,  in  an  ad 
vanced  state  of  civilization  and  refinement. 


CHRONOLOGY. 


1.  What  is  chronology  ? — It  is  that  department  of  knowledge 
which  relates  to  the  reckoning  of  time ;  the  term  is  from 
the  Greek  chronos,  time,  and  logos,  a  discourse. 

2.  What  is  an  era  ? — An  era  is  a  period  commencing  with  a 
fixed  point  of  time,  from  which  a  series  of  years  is  begun  to  be 
reckoned — as,  for  example,  the  Christian  era,  dating  from  the 
birth  of  Christ ;  the  Hebrew  era,  dating  from  the  creation  of  the 
world  as  narrated  in  Genesis ;  and  the  Roman  era,  from  the 
traditionary  date  of  the  foundation  of  Rome,  753  B.C. 

3.  When  did  the  era  of  the  ancient  Greeks  begin  ? — It  began 
with  the  first  year  of  the  first  Olympiad,  which  is  calculated 
to  have  commenced  at  midsummer,  776  B.  C. 

4.  What  is  the  Mohammedan  era  ? — It  commences  with  the 
13th  of  September,  622  A.D.,  the  date  of  the  flight  of  Moham- 
med from  Mecca  to  Medina,  and  is  called  the  Hegira,  ("flight"). 

5.  Has  every  country  reckoned  the  year  as  of  the  same  length  ? 
— No ;  the  general  ignorance  of  the  true  length  of  a  year  has 
given  rise  to  considerable  difference  of  reckoning,  a  circum- 
stance which  causes  perplexity  in  comparing  one  era  with 
another. 

6.  What  is  a  solar  year? — It  is  the  length  of  time  occupied 
by  the  earth  in  its  revolution  round  the  sun  ;  and  averages 
365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  and  49  seconds. 

7.  What  was  the  length  of  the  year  as  calculated  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians  ? — It  was  365  days,  by  which  short  reckoning  the 
festivals  gradually  shifted  from  their  true  anniversary. 

8.  What  was  the  length  of  year  as  calculated  by  the  Greeks  ?- 
It  was  365  1-4  days. 

4  A 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian   Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


86  CHRONOLOGY. 

9.  What  was  the  character  of  the  Ro7nan  reckom'jtg  ? — It  was 
confused  and  unsatisfactory,  until  the  calendar  was  rectified 
by  Julius  Caesar. 

10.  What  was  the  Julian  Calendar? — It  consisted  in  the 
adoption  by  Julius  Caesar  of  the  Greek  plan  of  reckoning 
that  the  year  should  consist  of  365  1-4  days.  To  dispose  of 
the  odd  quarter,  the  24th  of  February  was  doubled  every 
fourth  year  ;  the  day    so  interposed  being  called  bissextile. 

1 1 .  What  was  the  defect  of  the  fulian  calendar  ? — It  made 
the  year  about  1 1  minutes  too  long,  and  this  extension  amoun- 
ted to  3  days  in  nearly  400  years. 

12.  How  lo7ig  did  the  fulian  calendar  remain  in  use  ? — Until 
1582,  when  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  abolished  it,  and  instituted 
a  new  and  improved  calendar,  which,  from  his  name,  is  known 
as  the  Gregorian  calendar. 

13.  Describe  the  Gregorian  Calendar. — It  consisted,  in  the  first 
place,  of  dropping  10  days,  and  then  rectifying  the  future 
excess  of  nearly  1 1  minutes  annually. 

14.  How  was  the  excess  rectified? — By  the  simple  plan  of  ar- 
ranging that  the  last  year  of  each  century  should  not  be  a  leap- 
year,  unless  it  were  also  the  last  year  of  a  period  of  four 
centuries.  This  rectification  errs  by  only  one  day  in  4000 
years. 

15.  What  are  "Old''  and  "New  Styles  ?"—T\i&Y  are  the 
methods  of  reckoning  prescribed  by  the  Julian  and  Gregorian 
calendars. 

16.  Was  new  style  generally  adopted? — No  ;  it  was  at  first 
adopted  only  by  Roman  Catholic  states ;  some  of  the  chief 
Protestant  states  adopted  it  in  1700 ;  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
adopted  it  in  1752. 

17.  How  was  new  style  adopted  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland? 
— It  was  adopted  by  an  act  of  parliament,  175 1,  which  enacted 
that  II  days  should  be  omitted  after  the  2d  of  September,  1752, 
so  that  the  3d  day  should  be  the  14th. 

1 8.  What  is  now  the  difference  between  old  and  new  style  ? — - 
The  difference  is  12  days,  for  as  the  year  1800  was  not  a  leap- 
year,  I  day  is  added  to  the  former  number. 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from     1793     to     1794. — See    page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo  was    Fought    June    i8,    1815 — See   page    368. 


CHRONOLOGY. 


87 


19.  What  Christian  nation  still  adheres  to  old  style? — Russia. 
Eastern  Christians  also  adhere  to  it. 

20.  Why  is  a  leap-year  so  called? — Because  every  fourth  year 
a  day  is  leaped  over.  Common  years  advance  a  single  day  ;  if 
the  ist  of  March  is  Monday,  next  year  it  will  be  Tuesday; 
but  if  leap-year,  it  will  be  Wednesday — leaping  over  Tuesday. 

21.  How  do  we  know  which  is  a  leap-year? — By  dividing  the 
number  of  the  year  by  4,  if  nothing  remains,  it  is  a  leap-year. 
This  rule,  however,  will  not  hold  good  with  the  year  1900,  as 
it  is  not  a  four-hundredth  year  (see  Question  14). 

22.  What  is  meant  by  a  Civil  Year  ? — It  is  a  year  as  com- 
monly reckoned,  consisting  of  365  days  for  common  years,  and 
366  days  for  leap-years. 

23.  When  does  the  civil  year  begin  and  end? — It  begins  at  12 
o'clock  midnight  of  the  31st  December,  and  ends  at  12  o'clock 
on  the  night  of  the  31st  of  December. 

24.  When  did  the  ancients  begin  the  year? — The  Athenians 
began  the  year  in  June  ;  the  Romans  first  in  March,  and  after- 
wards in  January — the  practice  was  very  various. 

25.  What  was  the  practice  previous  to  the  reform  of  the  cal- 
endar ? — The  common  legal  practice  was  to  begin  the  year 
on  the  25th  of  March — a  most  awkward  arrangement,  for  the 
early  part  of  March  belonged  legally  to  one  year,  and  the 
latter  part  to  another.  To  add  to  the  confusion,  the  ist  of 
January  was  popularly  recognized  as  the  beginning  of  the 
year. 

26.  When  was  the  New-year  s  Day  changed  from  the  2^th  of 
March  to  the  ist  of  January  ? — This  change  was  effected  gra- 
dually. The  ist  of  January  was  adopted  legally  by  France  in 
1563,  by  Scotland  in  1600,  and  by  England  and  Ireland  at  the 
change  of  the  style,  1752. 

27.  Give  an  example  of  the  method  of  writing  the  dates  of 
events  previous  to  1752. — The  execution  of  Charles  I.  offers  a 
well-known  example.  It  occurred  January  30,  1648 — 1649; 
that  is  to  say,  1648  by  the  old  reckoning,  and  1649  by  the 
reckoning  now  in  use. 

28.  When  does  a  century  begin  and  end? — It  begins  with  I, 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


1 


88  CHRONOLOGY.  ' 

and  ends  with  100;  for  example,  the  i8th  century  began 
with  1701,  and  ended  with  1800;  accordingly,  1801  was  the 
first  year  in  the  19th  century. 

29.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  term  "Mo7ith  f — It  signified 
originally  the  time  occupied  by  the  moon  in  revolving  round 
the  earth,  which  is  rather  more  than  29  1-2  days ;  28  days  are 
sometimes,  for  convenience,  called  a  lunar  month. 

30.  What  is  a  Civil  or  Calendar  Month? — It  is  a  certain 
number  of  days,  30  or  31,  in  all  months  but  February,  which 
has  28  in  common,  and  29  in  leap-years. 

31.  When  were  the  inonths  named  and  arranged? — The  cal- 
endar months,  twelve  in  number,  received  their  names  from 
the  Romans,  and  were  arranged  by  Julius  Caesar  almost  as 
they  now  appear. 

32.  Mentio7i  why  the  present  names  were  given  to  the  respective 
months  by  the  Roinans. — 

1.  January  is  so  called  from  Janus,  who,  according  to  the 
Roman  mythology,  was  god  of  the  year,  and  presided  over 
the  commencement  of  all  undertakings. 

2.  February  takes  its  name  from  the  'L2X\vifebruo,  I  purify; 
because  in  this  month  the  Romans  had  certain  religious  cere- 
monials designed  for  moral  purification. 

3.  March  is  named  from  Mars,  the  god  of  war,  and  supposed 
father  of  Romulus,  the  founder  of  Rome. 

4.  April  is  derived  from  aperio,  to  open,  because  in  this 
month  vegetation  began  to  open  and  bud. 

5.  May  is  either  from  ?naJores,  old  men,  or  from  Maia, 
mother  of  Mercury,  to  whom  sacrifices  were  made  on  the  first 
day. 

6.  June  is  either  from  Juno,  or  iromjuniores,  young  men,  to 
whom  the  month  was  dedicated. 

7.  July  is  from  Julius,  and  was  so  named  by  Augustus,  in 
honor  of  Julius  Caesar. 

8.  August  is  named  in  honor  of  Augustus. 

9.  September  is  from  septem,  seven  ;  this  having  been  the 
seventh  month,  when  the  Romans  began  the  year  with  March. 

10.  October;  11.  November;  12.   December;  these  names 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great   Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long.— See    page    302. 


CHRONOLOGY. 


89 

respectively  signify  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth,  and  were  given 
when  March  was  reckoned  the  first  month. 

33.  How  did  the  Romans  divide  the  month  ? — They  divided 
the  month  into  three  periods — Calends,  Nones,  and  Ides,  and 
an  event  was  said  to  have  occurred  so  many  days  before  these 
divisions,  as  the  case  might  be. 

34.  Had  the  Greeks  calends  ? — No  ;  hence  the  ironical  Roman 
phrase,  ad  Grcecas  Calendas,  "  at  the  Greek  calends,"  meaning 
never.  When  a  thing  is  said  to  be  postponed  "  to  the  Greek 
calends,"  it  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  it  "  will  never  take 
place." 

35.  What  is  a  week  ? — It  is  a  period  of  seven  days,  or  about 
a  quarter  of  a  lunar  month ;  the  week  is  a  very  ancient  division 
of  time,  not  only  among  the  Hebrews,  as  derived  from  the 
seven  days  of  creation,  but  among  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
Chinese,  and  Hindus. 

36.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  English  names  of  the  days  of 
the  week? — The  names  are  derived  from  the  Saxons  and 
Scandinavians,  and  are  as  follows :  Sunday,  is  named  from  the 
Sun ;  Monday,  from  the  Moon  ;  Tuesday,  from  Tuesco,  the  god 
of  war;  Wednesday,  from  Woden,  the  chief  Scandinavian 
deity;  Thursday,  from  Thor,  the  Saxon  god  of  thunder; 
Friday,  from  Friga,  the  wife  of  Woden ;  and  Saturday,  from 
Seater,  the  Scandinavian  equivalent  for  Saturn. 

37.  What  are  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  e7nployed  in 
the  records  of  parliament  ? — Dies  Solis,  for  Sunday;  Dies  Lunce, 
Monday;  Dies  Martis,  Tuesday;  Dies  Mercurii,  Wednesday, 
Dies  Jovis,  Thursday ;  Dies  Vetieris,  Friday  ;  and  Dies  Saturni, 
Saturday. 

38.  What  is  the  origin  of  these  Latin  names  ? — They  are  de- 
rived from  the  names  of  heathen  deities,  according  to  the 
Roman  mythology.  The  French  names  of  the  days  of  the 
week  are  for  the  most  part  derived  from  these  Latin  names — 
for  example,  Mercredi,  Wednesday ;  and  Mardi,  Tuesday. 

39  W?iat  is  the  origin  of  the  word  "  Sabbath  ?" — Sabbath  is 
from  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  rest,  and  was  applied  to  the 
last  or  seventh  day  of  the  week,  because  God  is  represented  as 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563.— See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


90  CHRONOLOGY, 

having  rested  from  the  work  of  creation  on  that  day,  and 
ordained  in  commemoration  of  that  event,  that  the  day  should 
ever  be  marl^ed  by  a  total  cessation  of  labor.  Among  Chris- 
tians, Sunday  is  the  day  of  rest  or  Sabbath,  and  is  otherwise 
termed  the  "  Lord's  Day." 

40.  When  did  the  Hebrews  begin  their  weekly  Sabbath  ? — They 
began  it  at  sunset  on  the  sixth  day  (Friday),  and  ended  it  at 
sunset  on  the  seventh  (Saturday);  this  arrangement  being  de- 
termined by  Scriptural  phraseology — "  and  the  evening  and 
the  morning  were  the  first  day." 

41.  Has  any  attempt  ever  been  made  to  substitute  new  divisions 
of  tij7ie  for  the  ordinary  months  and  weeks  ? — Yes  ;  the  French 
revolutionists  attempted  by  law  to  introduce  a  new  calendar ; 
in  1 793  they  decreed  that  the  era  of  the  republic  should  begin 
with,  or  be  dated  from,  the  22d  of  September,  1792. 

42.  What  principle  did  the  French  adopt  as  regards  the 
monthsS — They  divided  the  year  into  twelve  months  of  30 
days  each,  leaving  the  extra  five  days  in  common  years,  and 
six  in  leap-years  to  be  devoted  to  festivals  or  holidays. 

43.  Mention  the  names  of  the  months  according  to  the  French 
revolutionary  calendar. — Beginning  with  the  22d  of  September, 
they  had  as  follows :  Vendemiaire,  or  Vintage  month ;  Bru- 
maire,  Fog  month ;  Frimaire,  Sleet  month ;  Nivose,  Snow 
month ;  Pluviose,  Rain  month  ;  Ventose,  Wind  month ;  Ge?'- 
7ninal,  Spring  or  sprouting  month ;  Floreal,  Flower  month ; 
Prairial,  Pasture  month  ;  Messidor,  Harvest  month  ;  Thermic 
dor.  Hot  month ;  and  Fructidor,  Fruit  month. 

44.  Mention  the  festivals  on  the  extra  five  days — The  ist 
festival  (September  17)  was  dedicated  to  the  Virtues;  the  2d 
to  Genius ;  the  3d  to  Labor;  the  4th  to  Opinion ;  and  the  5th 
to  Rewards. 

45.  What  did  the  French  substitute  for  weeks  ? — They  divided 
each  month  into  three  parts  of  ten  days  each.  These  parts 
were  called  Decades,  from  the  Greek  word  deca,  ten. 

46.  What  were  the  na7nes  of  the  days  in  a  decade? — The 
names,  adopted,  with  the  exception  of  the  last,  from  the  Latin 
numerals,  signifying  first  day,  second  day,  etc.,  were  as  follows ; 
Primidi,   Duodi,    Tridi,   Quartidi,    Quintidi,    Sextidi,    Septidi, 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See   page    133, 


CHRONOLOGY,  gj 

Octidi,  Nonz'di,  and  Decadi,    The  last  day,  Decadi,  was  the  day 
of  rest. 

47.  How  long  was  the  French  revolutionary  calendar  in  use  f 
— It  remained  in  use  until,  by  a  decree  of  Napoleon,  the  old 
calendar  was  resumed  on  the  ist  of  January,  1806. 

48.  What  is  a  Cycle? — A  cycle  is  a  circle  or  period  of  time 
on  the  completion  of  which  certain  phenomena  return  in  the 
same  order. 

49.  Describe  a  Lunar  Cycle. — A  lunar  cycle  is  a  period  of 
nineteen  solar  years,  during  which  the  phases  of  the  moon 
occur  differently  every  year,  and  after  which  they  recom- 
mence in  the  same  order. 

50.  What  is  a  Metonic  Cycle? — That  is  a  name  often  given 
to  a  lunar  Cycle,  and  is  so  called  from  its  discoverer,  Meton, 
who  flourished  at  Athens  about  432  b.  c. 

51.  Why  does  a  Ltmar  or  Metonic  Cycle  occupy  7tineteen years? 
— Because  the  period  of  nineteen  years  is  nearly  equal  to  235 
lunations  (revolutions  of  the  moon  round  the  earth),  and  it  is 
only  after  going  through  this  circle  of  time,  that  the  new  and 
full  moons  occur  on  the  same  day  of  the  year  as  previously. 

52.  What  is  the  "  Golden  Number?" — It  is  the  number  of  any 
year  in  the  series  of  nineteen  composing  a  lunar  cycle.  For 
example,  the  golden  number  of  the  first  year  is  one,  and  of 
the  last  year  19. 

53.  Why  is  it  called  the  "Golden  Number  f — Because  the 
number  of  each  year  in  the  Lunar  or  Metonic  cycle  was  or- 
dered by  the  Greeks  to  be  inscribed  in  letters  of  gold  on  pil- 
lars of  marble. 

54.  Hoiv  do  we  learn  what  is  the  golden  number  of  any  partic- 
tilar year? — By  a  simple  arithmetical  calculation,  based  on 
the  principle  that  in  the  year  i  B.  C.  the  new  moon  fell  on  the 
1st  of  January,  and  will  fall  on  the  same  day  every  19th  year 
from  that  time. 

55.  Give  the  rule  for  Jinding  the  golden  ntmiber. — Add  i  to  the 
number  of  years,  and  divide  by  19;  the  quotient  will  be  the 
number  of  cycles  since  I  B.  C,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle.— See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist. — See  page  65. 


m 


O 


92  CHRONOLOGY 

golden  number;    if   there  be  no  remainder,  then   19  is  the 
golden  number,  and  that  year  is  the  last  of  the  cycle. 

56.  Present  an  example. — Wanted  to  know  the  golden  num- 
ber for  1865,  add  I,  which  will  make  1866;  divide  by  19,  the  quo- 
tient is  98,  and  the  remainder  is  4,  which  is  the  golden  number 
for  1865 — in  other  words,  the  lunar  cycle  which  comprehends 
1865  began  in  1862. 

57.  What  is  the  rule  for  deter  ^nining  Easter  in  any  particular 
year? — Easter  is  always  the  fiirst  Sunday  after  first  full  moon 
on  or  after  the  21st  of  March.  The  Easter  festival  is  there- 
fore never  before  the  22d  of  March,  or  after  the  25th  of  April. 

58.  What  is  a  Sidereal  day  ? — It  is  the  time  occupied  by  the 
earth  in  its  diurnal  rotation,  which  is  23  hours,  56  minutes, 
and  4  seconds. 

59.  Why  is  the  term  "  sidereal"  employed? — Because,  on  mak- 
ing a  complete  rotation,  the  earth  has  the  same  spot  opposite 
a  fixed  star — the  term  sidereal  being  from  the  Latin  sidus,  a 
star. 

60.  What  is  a  Solar  day? — It  is  the  time  occupied  by  the 
earth  in  returning  to  the  same  position  relative  to  the  sun, 
which  is,  on  an  average,  24  h  ours. 

61.  Why  should  the  earth  require  24  hours  to  retu7'7i  to  be  op- 
posite the  sun,  while  it  returns  to  be  opposite  a  star  i7t  23  hours, 
^d  minutes,  and  J^  seconds? — Because  stars  are  fixed  points  in 
the  heavens,  while  the  sun  daily  shifts  a  little  in  its  relative 
position. 

62.  What  is  a  Civil  day? — It  is  a  solar  day,  or  more  strictly, 
24  hours,  which  length  of  time  is  adopted  as  a  convenient 
measurement  by  civil  society. 

63.  What  is  meant  by  "fnean  time?" — It  is  time  as  shown  by 
clocks  and  watches,  which  give  only  a  regular  average  of  24 
hours  a  day,  and  not  the  precise  length  of  the  fluctuating  so- 
lar day.  This  general  average,  one  part  of  the  year  with  an- 
other, is  mean  time. 

64.  Do  sun-dials  show  mean  time? — No;  sun-dials  indicate  the 
exact  or  true  time  according  to  the  sun,  and  therefore  do  not 
correspond  exactly  with  clocks  and  watches. 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47. 


LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  ETC. 


93 


65.  How  has  the  civil  day  been  divided? — Into  24  hours,  each 
hour  consisting  of  60  minutes,  and  each  minute  consisting  of 
60  seconds.  Usually,  the  24  hours  of  the  day  are  divided  into 
two  portions  of  12  hours  each — 12  o'clock  midnight  to  12 
o'clock  noon,  and  12  o'clock  noon  to  12  o'clock  midnight. 

66.  Is  the  division  of  time  into  hours  natural  or  artificial?—^ 
The  division  is  quite  artificial ;  there  is  nothing  in  nature  to 
suggest  any  uniform  subdivision  of  the  day. 

67.  How  are  the  hours  designated  ? — The  hours  from  twelve 
noon  to  midnight  are  designated  post  tneridiein  (after  mid- 
day), and  the  hours  from  midnight  to  noon  are  said  to  be 
ante  meridiem  (before  mid-day).  The  abbreviations  p.m.  and 
A.M.  are  ordinarily  employed. 

68.  When  does  the  civil  day  begi?t? — Immediately  after  12 
o'clock  midnight,  but  this  is  a  comparatively  modern  arrange- 
ment. 

69.  What  is  Horology? — It  is  the  department  of  chronology 
referring  to  hours  and  their  subdivisions;  the  term  is  from 
two  Greek  words  signifying  hour  and  discourse. 

70.  When  were  clocks  invented  for  7neasuring  time  ? — The 
earliest  known  clock  was  invented  by  Henry  de  Vic  or  De 
Wyck,  a  German,  in  1379;  but  the  pendulum,  as  a  regulating 
power  in  clocks,  was  introduced  by  Huygens,  a  celebrated 
Dutch  astronomer,  as  late  as  1657. 


LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  ETC. 

I  What  is  Philology  ? — It  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
nature  and  relation  of  languages. 

2.  What  is  Etymology? — It  is  a  department  of  philology  de- 
voted to  the  examination  of  words,  as  regards  their  origin  and 
formation. 

3.  How  many  languages  are  there  in  the  world? — There  are 
many  hundreds,  but  certain  groups  of  them  are  so  like  one 
another,  that  the  members  of  each  group  may  be  considered  as 
varieties  of  one  tongue. 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors, — See    page    243. 


94  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  ETC. 

4.  What  are  the  Semitic  languages  ? — They  are  those  langu- 
ages spoken  by  the  nations  which  sprung  immediately  from 
Shem,  one  of  the  Sons  of  Noah ;  to  this  class  belong  the  He- 
brew, the  Chaldee,  and  the  Arabic. 

5.  What  are  the  Indo-Germanic  or  Indo-European  languages  f 
— They  are  a  numerous  class,  prevailing  in  Asia  and  Europe, 
traceable  to  tribes  who  at  a  remote  period  called  themselves 
Aryans,  and  who  peopled  the  north  of  India  and  Persia ;  to 
this  group  belong  the  Sanscrit,  Hindustani,  Greek,  Latin, 
Celtic,  German,  English,  and  many  other  tongues. 

6.  What  is  meant  by  "  classical  language  ?" — The  term  is  ap- 
plied to  a  pure  and  dignified  form  of  a  language,  adapted  for 
expressing  the  higher  order  of  thoughts ;  the  word  classical 
is  from  the  Latin  classis,  signifying  a  class  or  order  of  Roman 
citizens. 

7.  Which  languages  are  ordinarily  spoken  of  as  classical  ? — 
The  ancient  Greek  and  Latin  languages,  both  now  disused  as 
spoken  tongues,  but  known  to  us  by  the  finest  compositions 
of  ancient  literature.  It  is  also  customary  to  speak  of  the 
Sanscrit  as  the  classical  language  of  India. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  the '' divarication  of  languages?" — It 
means  the  breaking  of  a  language  into  two  or  more  separate 
languages,  through  corruptions  and  other  circumstances. 

9.  Give  an  example. — The  modern  French,  Italian,  Spanish, 
and  Portuguese  are  divarications  of  the  Latin ;  the  peculiari- 
ties in  each  being  traceable  to  some  local  circumstances. 

10.  What  is  a  Dialect? — It  is  a  peculiar  or  local  form  of  a 
language;  the  Lowland  Scotch  speech,  for  example,  is  re- 
garded as  a  dialect  of  the  English, 

11.  What  is  meafit  by  a'' patois?" — "Patois "is  a  French 
term  for  the  corrupted  dialect  spoken  by  the  illiterate  classes, 
which  is  rarely  seen  in  literature. 

12.  What  is  literature? — It  is  the  writing  contained  in 
books  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  and  has  a  variety  of 
departments— history,  theology,  philosophy,  poetry,  prose, 
fiction,  and  other  kinds  of  writing. 

12>'  Of  what  does  ancient  literature  chiefly  consist? — Of  the 


Croesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing  was    Invented    in    1437,   by  John    Guttenberg. — See   page   305. 


LANG  UA  GE,  LITER  A  TURE,  E  TC.  95 

writings    of    the    Hebrews,   Chinese,   Hindus,   Greeks,  and 
Romans. 

14.  What  are  the  best  specimens  of  ancient  Hebrew  literature? 
— The  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

15.  What  is  the  Tabmid? — It  is  the  name  given  to  the  book 
which  comprehends  the  Jewish  law,  both  written  and  oral, 
together  with  the  commentaries  of  learned  Hebrews.  Those 
who  attach  importance  to  these  traditions  are  called  Tal- 
mudists.  The  word  Talmud  is  from  the  Hebrew  lamad,  to 
teach. 

16.  What  is  meatit  by  " the  Canon  of  Scripture?" — It  signi- 
fies the  Scriptures  which  have  been  established  as  authentic 
by  the  decision  of  councils  of  the  church  ;  the  term^^;^^;^,  in 
Greek,  means  a  rule  or  standard.  The  "  sacred  canon  "  compre- 
hends the  whole  of  the  Scriptures  except  the  Apocrypha. 

17.  What  is  meant  by  the  Apocrypha  ? — The  term  Apocrypha 
is  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  that  which  is  hidden,  but 
latterly  anything  spurious,  or  false,  or  without  authority ;  it 
is  now  applied  to  certain  books  which  have  been  rejected 
Irom  the  canon  of  Scripture  as  being  of  doubtful  authenticity, 
or  not  worthy  to  be  included  in  the  Holy  Bible. 

18.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  luord  "Bible  ?" — It  is  from 
the  Greek  biblos,  a  book,  and  is  applied  to  the  whole  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  Scriptures. 

19.  What  are  the  languages  in  which  the  Bible  was  originally 
written  f— The  Old  Testament  was  written  mainly  in  Hebrew, 
but  partly  also  in  Chaldee,  and  the  New  Testament  in  Greek. 

20.  What  is  meantbya"Targu7nr'—i:he  word  targujn  is 
Hebrew,  and  signifies /;z/^r/r^/^//^/2 ;  it  is  applied  to  certain 
ancient  Chaldee  versions  of  the  Pentateuch  and  other  parts  of 
Scripture ;  also  to  some  versions  of  more  modern  date  ;  there 
are  therefore  several  Targums. 

21.  What  is  Rabbinical  Literature  ?— It  consists  of  a  vast 
array  of  works,  chiefly  in  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  by  learned 
rabbis  (masters  or  teachers),  which  treat  mainly  of  questions 
springing  out  of  the  law,  but  occasionally  branching  out  into 
the  wider  realms  of  philosophy,  history,  grammar,  and  poetry. 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821 — See  page  411. 


p6  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  ETC. 

Rabbinical  literature  began  after  the  return  from  captivity; 
in  fact,  it  is  just  another  name  for  Jewish  literature. 

22.  Who  were  the  Essenes  ? — They  were  a  fraternity  among 
the  Jews  previous  to  and  after  the  birth  of  Christ;  their  his- 
tory is  involved  in  considerable  obscurity,  but  it  is  known 
that  they  were  ascetics  who  aspired  to  excessive  cerem.onial 
purity  according  to  the  Levitical  law. 

23.  Who  were  the  Gnostics  f — They  were  early  Christian  sects, 
who  derived  their  name  from  the  Greek  word  gnosis,  know- 
ledge, as  applied  to  revealed  religion.  They  considered  that, 
from  their  superior  philosophical  perceptions,  they  had  coiie 

:o  "  know"  the  nature  of  those  truths  which  common  Chris- 
tians could  only  "  believe."  Hence  they  elevated  Gnosis  above 
Pistis  (faith).  The  religious  belief  of  the  Gnostics  was  tinc- 
tured with  the  mysticism  of  the  East  and  the  philosophy  of 
<he  Greeks. 

24.  What  was  the  Septiiagint  ? — It  was  a  Greek  version  of 
ehe  original  Hebrew  Old  Testament,  executed,  according  to  the 
tstory  recorded  by  Josephus  and  Philo,  about  280  years  B.  c, 
and  was  so  called  from  being,  according  to  the  story  recorded 
<)y  Josephus,  the  work  of  seventy,  or,  more  strictly,  seventy-two 
translators. 

25.  What  is  77teant  by  "the  Vulgate f" — It  signifies  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  into  Latin — which  was  the  vulgar  or 
common  tongue  of  the  Romans — and  is  said  to  have  been  exe- 
cuted about  380  AD. 

26.  When  was  the  first  English  version  of  the  whole  Bible  exe- 
cuted?— In  1535,  by  Myles  Coverdale  ;  but  the  New  Testament 
and  a  part  of  the  Old  had  been  executed  a  few  years  previ- 
ously by  William  Tyndale. 

27.  When  was  the  present  authorized  version  of  the  Bible  exe- 
cuted?— It  was  prepared  between  1607 — 1610,  by  a  body  of 
eminent  scholars,  at  the  request  of  James  I.  of  England,  and 
is  prized  for  its  fidelity;  a  considerable  portion  of  it, 
however,  is  taken  from  the  previous  excellent  version  of 
Tyndale. 

28.  What  is  meant  by  "an  apostle?" — The  term  apostle  is 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  ETC.  97 

from  the  Greek  apostolos,  signifying  one  who  is  deputed  or 
sent  from — that  is,  "  from  God,"  and  is  applied  in  the  New 
Testament  to  one  who  is  commissioned  to  preach  the  Gospel 
of  Christ. 

29.  What  IS  meant  by  "  Gospel?" — Gospel  is  from  the  Saxon 
^od  or  good,  and  spell,  a  narration,  and  signifies  a  good  history, 
or  intelligence  of  good  events — good  news. 

30.  W hat  was  the  ancient  form  of  books  ? — Books  were  ori- 
ginally written  on  finely-prepared  skins  or  parchment,  united 
together  in  rolls ;  all  the  Scriptures  in  use  among  the  ancient 
Hebrews  were  in  this  form. 

31.  What  luas papyrus? — It  was  a  preparation  of  the  stems 
of  the  papyrus,  an  Egyptian  plant  employed  as  a  substitute 
for  parchment ;   the  word  paper  is  derived  from  the  papyrus. 

32.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  "  library  ?" — It  is  from  liber, 
Latin  for  book. 

33.  Explain  the  origin  of  the  word  "vohwte." — The  books  of 
the  Romans  were  in  the  form  of  rolls  wound  round  small 
wooden  rollers;  these  roll-books  were  called  2/^/z^w/«« — hence 
the  English  wcrd  volume. 

34.  IIoTV  were  books  prepared  before  the  invention  of  prititing? 
—Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  by  professional  transcribe 
ers,  who  were  usually  employed  to  w^rite  copies  of  books, 
for  general  circulation  ;  in  the  middle  ages,  when  books  as^ 
sumed  their  present  shape,  the  work  of  transcription  was 
executed  by  certain  industrious  orders  of  monks.  The  process 
of  transcription  was  tedious  and  costly. 

35.  What  are  Palimpsests  ?—A  palimpsest  is  a  book  in  parch- 
ment, from  which  the  ancient  classical  writing  was  effaced,  in 
order  that  the  pages  might  receive  writing  of  a  later,  gen- 
erally monkish  kmd— the  want  of  paper  necessitating  this 
extraordinary  expedient;  the  word  palijnpsest  is  from  two 
Greek  words,  signifying  to  efface  and  to  use  again. 

36.  Where  are  palimpsests  to  be  seen? — A  few  may  be  seen  in 
libraries  and  museums  ;  in  some  instances,  the  original  writing 
in  a  palimpsest  has  been  recovered  by  a  chemical  preparation. 

37.  What  is  "Bibliography  ?" -Bib\iogr2iphy  is  a  term  ap' 

5 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


V 

& 
a 

a 
O 


98 


LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  ETC. 


plied  to  the  proper  cataloguing  and  describing  of  books;  the 
person  who  undertakes  such  work  is  called  a  bibliographer. 

38.  What  is  the  ''Index  Expurgatorzus ?" — It  is  the  name 
given  to  a  catalogue  of  books  which  papal  authority  has  pro- 
hibited being  read  by  members  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  on  account  of  their  supposed  heretical  or  otherwise 
improper  character.  The  business  of  the  tribunal  is  con- 
ducted by  a  special  body  of  officials  at  Rome. 

39.  How  did  the  term  "  Statio?ter"  originate? — Wheti  books 
were  multiplied  by  the  invention  of  printing,  they  were  sold 
by  booksellers  at  stalls  stationed  at  the  gates  of  universities 
and  other  places;  hence,  booksellers  became  known  as  sta- 
tionarii,  or  stationers,  by  which  designation  they  were  long 
chiefly  known. 

40.  What  are  the  Vedas? — They  are  the  most  ancient  and 
iiiost  authoritative  Hindu  books  on  religious  subjects.  They 
are  in  Sanscrit. 

41.  What  are  the  Pur  anas  ? — They  are  later  Hindu  writings 
containing  the  creeds  and  rites  of  the  various  Hindu  sects  of 
modern  times. 

42.  What  is  the  Shaster? — Shaster  or  Shastra  means  simply 
a  book  ;  but  the  term  is  especially  applied  to  the  authoritative 
religious  and  legal  books  of  the  Hindus. 

43.  Who  was  Co7ifucius? — He  was  a  Chinese  sage  and  mora- 
list, who  was  born  about  550  B.C.,  and  wrote  several  works 
inculcating  justice,  honesty,  benevolence,  and  other  virtues, 
which  have  been  greatly  esteemed.  The  peculiar  interest 
attaching  to  Confucius  lies  in  this,  that  his  system  of  religion, 
or  rather  morality,  is  regarded  as  the  most  faithful  expression 
of  the  Chinese  mind. 

44.  What  is  the  Koran  ? — It  is  the  sacred  book  or  bible  of 
the  Mohammedans,  composed  in  Arabic  by  Mohammed ;  the 
word  Koran  is  from  the  Arabic  karaa,  to  read  or  teach. 

45.  What  was  the  Zendavesta? — It  was  the  sacred  book  or 
bible  of  the  ancient  Persians,  so  called  from  the  Zend  lan- 
guage, which  formerly  prevailed  in  Persia ;  it  is  ascribed  in 
part  to  Zoroaster. 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


RELIGION    OF    THE    HINDOOS.       A    BRAHMIN    EXPOUNDING    THE    VEDA. 

98. 


VN/VER8/Tr 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was   the   Food    of  the   Gods. — See  page   248. 


LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  ETC. 


99 


46.  What  are  the  two  great  varieties  of  literature  ? — Prose 
and  poetry. 

47.  What  is  poetry? — It  is  any  production  of  the  imagi- 
nation expressed  in  language,  or  loftily-conceived  thoughts 
expressed  in  spoken  or  written  words. 

48.  Must  poetry  be  in  the  forin  of  verse  ? — No ;  it  often  appears 
in  the  form  of  prose,  as  is  exemplified  in  Job  and  some  other 
books  in  the  Old  Testament,  also  in  the  poems  of  Ossian. 

49.  What  are  the  principal  kinds  of  poetry? — The  Epic,  the 
Lyric,  and  the  Dramatic  ;  there  are  likewise  Didactic  and 
some  other  varieties  of  poetical  composition. 

50.  What  is  Epic  poetry  ? — Epic  is  from  the  Greek  epos,  z. 
word,  a  discourse,  or  narrative ;  an  epic  poem  is  a  narrative 
of  events,  which  may  be  either  real  or  fictitious,  or  partly 
both.  The  heroic  epic,  such  as  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of 
Homer,  or  the  Paradise  Lost  of  Milton,  is  considered  the 
grandest  species  of  poetical  composition. 

51.  What  is  Lyric  poetry  ?—hyr\c  is  from  the  Greek  lyra,  a 
lyre  ;  lyric  poetry  is  so  called  from  having  been  originally  ac- 
companied by  the  music  of  the  lyre.  It  concerns  itself  with 
the  more  delicate  emotions,  and  embraces  songs  of  the  affec- 
tions and  feelings. 

52.  Mention  some  of  the  varieties  of  lyrics? — Hymns  or 
spiritual  songs,  anthems,  love-songs,  war-songs,  elegies,  and 
odes. 

53.  What  is  an  ode? — Ode  is  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies 
literally  a  song  ;  but  it  is  applied  specially  to  songs  or  verses 
which  consist  of  passionate  addresses  to  persons  and  things. 

54.  What  is  an  Idyll? — Idyll  is  from  a  Greek  word  signify- 
ing a  little  image,  and  is  usually  applied  to  any  poem  depict- 
ing simple  scenes  of  pastoral  or  village  life. 

55.  Give  an  example  of  an  Idyll. — The  Book  of  Ruth  is  an 
idyll ;  and  so  likewise  are  Burns's  Cotter's  Saturday  Night, 
Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village,  and  many  of  the  poems  of 
George  Crabbe. 

56.  What  is  dramatic  poetry  ? — The  word  drama  is  from  the 
Greek  drad,  I  act,   and   by  dramatic  poetry  is  signified  the 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70, — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered   i2.-See  page   242. 


1 00  LANG  UA  GE,  LITER  A  TURE,  E  TO. 

poetical  representation  of  human  actions  and  conversations 
on  the  stage. 

57.  What  IS  said  to  have  been  the  original  form  of  the  drama? 
^^The  drama  received  its  earliest  development  among  the 
Greeks,  and  consisted  originally  of  choral  songs  delivered  by 
one  or  two  persons. 

58.  Who  was  Thespis  ? — Thespis  was  a  Greek  who  flourished 
536  B.C.,  and  is  said  to  have  introduced  regular  conversations 
into  the  choral  songs  at  the  festivals  of  Bacchus,  thereby 
promoting  the  introduction  of  tragedy. 

59.  What  is  Tragedy? — The  term  tragedy  is  derived  from 
the  Greek,  tragodia,  which  is  from  tragos,  a  goat,  and  ode,  a 
song.  The  ordinary  explanation  of  the  origin  of  this  name 
is,  that  a  goat  was  given  as  a  prize  to  the  singers  of  the  dia- 
logues v/hich  composed  the  representation.  Tragedy  is  ap- 
plied to  any  drama  of  a  grave  kind,  the  opposite  of  comedy. 

60.  What  ii  comedy  ? — Comedy  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
komos,  a  revel,  or  kd?ne,  a  village,  and  signifies  literally  a  re 
veller's  song,  or  the  village  song  ;  in  its  character  comedy  is 
sportive,  witty  and  amusing. 

61.  What  is  an  Opera? — It  is  a  musical  drama,  in  which 
the  dialogues  are  sung,  much  in  the  manner  of  the  ancient 
choral  tragedies  of  the  Greeks ;  it  is,  however,  a  modern 
form  of  composition,  taking  its  name  from  the  Italian  opera, 
a  work. 

62.  What  is  the  libretto  of  an  opera? — It  is  the  words  of  the 
piece,  which  are  only  a  peg  on  which  to  hang  the  music ;  the 
term  libretto  is  Italian  for  "  a  little  book." 

63.  What  is  Metre? — It  is  a  measured  succession  of  sylla- 
bles, forming  verse ;  the  term  metre  signifying  measure.  In 
the  classical  languages,  metre  depended  upon  the  way  in 
which  long  and  short  syllables  were  made  to  succeed  each 
other;  but  English  metre  depends  on  the  succession  of  a 
certain  number  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables. 

64.  What  is  Blank  Verse  ? — It  is  metre  without  rhymes. 

65.  What  is  Rhy7ne? — It  is  a  correspondence  of  sounds  in 
certain  syllables,  most  commonly  the  terminating  syllables 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407- 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE,  ETC.  10 1 

in  verses.  Rhymes  are  often  by  mistake  called  poetry  ;  there 
may  be  rhymes  where  there  is  no  poetical  fancy,  but  onl^ 
a  jingle  of  words. 

66.  Is  rhyme  ancient  ? — It  has  been  known  from  the  earliest 
times  ;  but  the  systematic  use  of  final  rhymes  was  first  intro^ 
duced  in  the  Latin  hymns  of  the  middle  ages. 

67.  What  are  Alexandrines? — They  are  rhyming  verses, 
consisting  each  of  twelve  syllables  or  six  measures ;  the 
term  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  an  old  French  poem  on 
Alexander  the  Great,  belonging  to  the  12th  or  13th  century, 
in  which  this  long  measure  was  used. 

68.  What  is  the  Spenseria  n  stanza  ? — It  is  a  group  or  series 
of  metrical  rhymes,  each  line  consisting  of  ten  syllables,  ex- 
cept the  last,  which  has  twelve,  or  is  an  Alexandrine  ;  it  is 
Culled  Spenserian,  from  having  been  first  employed  in  Eng- 
lish by  Spenser  in  his  poem,  the  Fairy  Queen. 

69.  What  were  the  Delphin  classics? — They  were  a  series 
of  editions,  with  notes,  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classic  authors, 
prepare^  by  39  of  the  best  scholars  in  France,  by  order  of 
Louis  XIV.,  for  the  education  of  his  son,  the  Dauphin — in 
Latin  Delphinus.  The  books  were  described  as  "  In  usuin 
Delphini,"  or  ior  the  use  of  the  Dauphin;  hence  the  term 
"  Delphin  classics." 

70.  What  is  meant  by  *' liberty  of  the  press?" — It  is  the  liberty 
of  printing  books  and  newspapers  without  license  or  the  con- 
trol of  a  censor.  This  liberty  in  its  fullest  extent  is  now  en- 
joyed in  the  United  Kingdom— authors  and  publishers,  how- 
ever, being  accountable  at  law  for  attacks  on  private  character 
or  for  incitements  to  public  disorder. 

71.  What  is  "a  censorship  ?" — It  is  an  authority  asserted  by 
the  state  to  scrutinize  the  products  of  the  press,  and  to  re- 
strain them  from  being  issued  if  they  seem  objectionable  or 
dangerous  to  the  ruling  power.  A  censorship,  more  or  less 
strict,  exists  in  nearly  every  continental  country.  - 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


102         GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC. 

GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY  AND 
LITERATURE. 

1 .  What  was  the  period  most  distinguished  for  philosophy  anh 
literature  in  Greece? — It  was  a  period  extending  from  about 
500  B.  c.  to  146  B.  C;  but  there  were  many  distinguished  men 
earlier  and  also  later. 

2.  Who  were  the  "  Seven  Wise  .  men  of  Greece?" — These  were 
seven  persons  noted  for  their  sagacity  as  philosophers  and 
statesmen  at  an  early  period  of  Greek  history ;  they  were 
Periander  of  Corinth,  Pittacus,  Thales,  Solon,  Bias,  Chilon, 
qnd  Cleobulus. 

3.  What  is  meant  by  philosophy  f— Any  systematic  inquiries 
into  the  nature  of  things,  physical  or  mental ;  the  term  is  from 
the  Greok  phileo,  I  love  and  sophia,  wisdom. 

4.  What  is  mental  philosophy  ? — That  branch  of  philosophy 
which  treats  of  the  mind ;  it  is  sometimes  called  Psychology 

-psyche,  in  Greek,  for  soul  or  mind. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  metaphysics  ? — The  term  metaphysics  is 
«ometimes  used  as  another  name  for  mental  philosophy;  but 
m  its  more  proper  sense  it  denotes  certain  abstruse  specula- 
lations  concerning  the  nature  of  knowledge. 

6.  What  is  Logic? — It  is  the  art  of  reasoning,  and  is  so 
called  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  discourse. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  Ethics  ? — It  is  a  word  from  the  Greek, 
and  is  applied  to  the  science  which  treats  of  the  nature  and 
grounds  of  moral  obligation.  This  science  is  also  called 
Moral  Philosophy. 

8.  Who  was  Homer? — He  was  the  earliesi  and  greatest  of 
the  Greek  poets,  who  lived  probably  about  the  9th  century 
B.  c. ;  but  the  place  of  his  birth  is  unknown.  Homer's  two 
great  works  are  the  Iliad  2ind  Odyssey;  both  are  of  a  heroic 
character,  and  abound  in  lofty  sentiment. 

9.  Who  was Hesiod ? — Next  to  Homer,  he  was  the  earliest 
of  the  Greek  poets,  and  flourished  in  the  8th  century  b.  c. 
Hesiod's  poems  are  not  like  those  of  Homer,  but  portray 
peaceful  pursuits  and  a  simple  style  of  life  ;  they  alsc  illus- 
trate the  mythological  notions  of  the  time. 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    18,    1815. — See   page    368. 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC.         103 

10.  Who  was  Sappho .?— She  was  a  celebrated  Greek  poetess, 
born  in  the  Isle  of  Lesbos  about  600  B.  c. ;  her  poems  were  of 
the  lyrical  kind,  highly  finished  in  language,  and  abounding 
in  tenderness  of  sentiment.  It  is  this  poetess  to  whom  Lord 
Byron  refers  in  his  verses,  the  Isles  of  Greece — 

"  Where  burning  Sappho  loved  and  sung," 

11.  Who  was  jEschylus? — He  was  an  eminent  writer  of  tra- 
gedies, born  525  B.  c,  and  is  usually  styled  "the  father  of  tra- 
gedy." Seven  of  his  numerous  tragedies  are  preserved  and 
are  noted  for  grandeur  of  ideas  and  elegance  of  expression. 

12.  Who  was  Pindar? — He  was  a  famous  Greek  poet,  born 
about  520  B.  c. ;  his  poems  are  of  a  lofty,  heroic  nature,  chiefly 
In  praise  of  the  victors  of  the  Olympic,  Pythian,  and  other 
Greek  festivals,  and  were  favorites  with  Alexander  the 
Great. 

13.  Who  was  Sophocles? — He  was  a  celebrated  Greek  dram- 
atist, born  495  B.  c,  whose  tragedies,  more  particularly  his 
Antigone  and  (Edipus,  are  highly  admired  for  their  depth  and 
tenderness  of  feeling,  and  their  harmony  of  versification. 

14.  Who  was  Eziripides  ? — He  was  a  celebrated  Greek  dram- 
atist, born  480  B.  C,  and  after  ^schylus  and  Sophocles,  with 
whom  he  was  contemporary,  ranks  as  the  third  great  writer 
of  Greek  tragedy. 

1 5.  Who  was  jEsop  ? — He  is  said  to  have  been  a  freed  Greek 
slave,  who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  6th  century  b.  c.  He 
became  famous  for  teaching  morality  by  means  of  fables,  in 
which  the  lower  animals  are  introduced  as  actors.  Besides 
this  little  is  known  regarding  him.  The  fables  ascribed  to 
^sop  are  well  known  in  English  and  some  other  modern 
languages. 

16.  Who  was  Pythagoras? — He  was  a  Greek  philosopher, a 
native  of  Samos,  where  he  was  born  about  570  B.  c.  Pytha- 
goras has  left  no  works ;  and  it  is  therefore  questionable 
whether  he  is  to  be  held  responsible  for  every  doctrine  that 
goes  under  his  name.  His  disciples  probably  modified  or 
exaggerated  these  according  to  their  own  predilections.  The 
two  great  doctrines  associated  with  his  name  are,  first,  "that 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


1 


104         GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC. 

number  is  the  origin  of  all  things,"  and  second,  the  belief  in 
metempsychosis,  or  the  transmigration  of  souls. 

17.  Who  was  uEsculapius? — He  was  a  physician  rendered 
famous  by  Homer,  of  whom  there  are  numerous  mythological 
fables,  and  who  is  renowned  as  the  father  of  the  healing  art. 
^sculapius  is  always  represented  as  a  man  with  a  long  beard, 
holding  a  knotty  staff,  around  which  twines  a  serpent,  and  at 
his  feet  is  placed  a  cock,  and  sometimes  a  dog,  emblematic  of 
watchfulness, 

18.  Who  was  Hippocrates  ?— He  was  an  eminent  Greek 
physician,  belonging  to  a  family  that  claimed  to  be  descended 
from  ^sculapius,  and  was  born  about  460  B.  c.  Hippocrates 
systematized  the  medical  art,  and  left  various  writings,  still 
valued  for  their  sound  views  concerning  the  art  of  preserving 
health. 

19.  Who  was  Aristophanes? — He  was  a  native  of  Athens, 
born  444  B.  c,  and  renowned  as  a  writer  of  comedies,  which 
were  generally  of  a  satiric  character ;  his  comedies  are  prized 
for  their  wealth  of  fancy  and  beauty  of  style.  The  choruses 
in  particular  often  display  the  purest  spirit  of  poetry. 

20.  Who  was  Aristotle  ? — He  was  a  celebrated  Greek  philoso- 
pher, born  384  B.  c,  whose  writings  were  of  a  most  compre- 
hensive nature,  including  logic,  or  a  method  of  formal  reason- 
ing.    Alexander  the  Great  was  educated  under  Aristotle. 

21.  Who  was  the  " Sta^yrite  f'—ArisioUe  has  been  called 
the  Stagyrite  from  having  been  born  at  Stageira,  a  Greek 
colonial  town;  his  fame,  however,  rests  on  his  teaching  in 
the  Lyceum  near  Athens. 

22.  How  did  the  term  Lyceum  originate  .?— The  school  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Athens  at  which  Aristotle  taught  received 
the  name  Lyceum,  from  being  situated  near  the  temple  con- 
secrated to  Apollo  Lukeios  (Apollo  the  wolf-slayer).  Insti- 
tutions at  which  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  was  afterwards 
taught,  were  from  this  origin  called  lyceums,  and  the  term 
lyceum  is  now  often  applied  to  any  educational  institute. 

23.  What  was  the  ''Peripatetic  Philosophy?" — It  was  the 
philosophy   of    Aristotle,   which    he  usually    taught    while 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed    in   1588.— See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long. — See    page    302. 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC. 


105 


walking  (perzpateo,  "I  walk  about")  in  the   shady  groves  of 
the  Lyceum  ;  hence  his  followers  were  called  Peripatetics. 

24.  How  long  did  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  retain  its  influ^ 
ence? — It  was  embraced  among  other  systems  by  the  Romans, 
was  taught  under  the  auspices  of  the  church  in  the  middle 
ages,  and  kept  its  place  in  universities  till  displaced  by 
modern  and  more  correct  teachi^ig. 

25.  What  did  the  ancient  philosophers  teach  as  regards  the 
structure  of  the  universe  ? — They  taught  that  the  earth  is  sta- 
tionary in  the  centre  of  the  heavens,  and  that  the  sun  revolves 
around  it — a  theory  which  was  maintained  in  the  schools  and 
by  the  world  generally  until  the  discoveries  of  Copernicus. 

26.  What  was  the  "Primum  Mobile?" — In  the  ancient  astro- 
nomy, usually  called  the  Ptolemaic  system,  the  primum  mo- 
bile was  an  outer  or  tenth  sphere,  which  was  supposed  to  re- 
volve round  the  earth  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  to  carry  all 
the  other  spheres  of  the  heavenly  bodies  along  with  it. 

27.  Who  was  Socrates .?— He  was  a  Greek  philosopher,  born 
470  B.  c,  whose  character  and  teaching  were  equally  pure  and 
noble.  Alcibiades,  Crito,  Xenophon,  Aristippus,  Phsedon, 
Plato,  and  other  noted  men  were  among  his  pupils. 

28.  What  is  the  "Socratic  method  of  reasoning  ?" — It  is,  when 
arguing,  to  ask  questions,  by  answering  which  an  adversary 
unconsciously  makes  certain  fatal   admissions.     Socrates  re 
sorted  to  this  device,  in  order  to  force   his  pupils  to  think  for 
themselves,  and  to  be  on  their  guard  against  fallacies. 

29.  What  were  the  principal  doctri^ies  of  Socrates? — He 
taught  that  there  is  but  one  Divine  Being,  whose  favor 
can  only  be  propitiated  by  a  blameless  life;  at  the  same  time 
Socrates  sacrificed  and  prayed  at  the  heathen  altars  of  his 
country. 

30.  What  was  the  fate  of  Socrates? — He  was  accused  of 
denying  the  ancient  divinities  of  the  state,  and  of  perverting 
the  religion  of  his  pupils;  on  which  charge  he  wa«  condemned 
by  the  ruling  faction  to  death,  and  died  by  drinking  a  bowl 
of  poison,  B.  c.  399.  Few  of  the  ancients  have  merited  such 
profound  admiration  as  Socrates. 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


106        GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC. 


31.  Who  was  Theophrastus  ? — He  was  afarrtous  Greek  philo- 
sopher and  naturahst,  born  371  b.  c.  He  succeeded  Aristotle 
as  a  teacher  at  Athens,  and  composed  a  number  of  works 
concerning  plants,  stones,  and  other  natural  objects  ;  but  his 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  work,  entitled  Ethical  Characters, 
which  shows  an  intimate  knowledge  of  mankind. 

32.  Who  were  the  Sophists .?— They  were  a  class  of  reasoners  1  o 
contemporary  with  Socrates  and  Pericles,  who  took  their  ^ 
designation  from  sophos,  wise;  but  they  brought  reasoning  i  ^ 
into  contempt  by  endeavoring  to  cast  uncertainty  over  the  |  u 
most  obvious  truths.  Hence,  specious  arguments  are  called  «t! 
wphistry. 

33.  Who  was  Plato  .?— He  was  an  eminent  Greek  philoso-  « 
phcr,  born  about  429  b.  c.  His  original  name  was  Aristocles,  o 
and  he  was  called  Plato,  from  platus,  broad,  on  account  of  the  w 
areadth  of  his  chest  and  forehead.  Instructed  by  Socrates,  ;§ 
Plato  adopted  lofty  views  of  nature  and  of  the  aspirations  of  •-» 
the  human  soul,  which  he  taught  in  the  groves  of  Academeia.           § 

34.  What  was  the  Academeia? — It  was  a  spot  where  Plato  (j 
taught,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Athens,  which  was  said  to  ^ 
have  been  presented  to  the  citizens  for  gymnastic  exercises  ^ 
by  the  mythic  hero  Academus,  and  hence  its  name.  Hence  g 
che  English  Academy,  now  applied  to  any  school  of  a  superior 
kind. 

35.  What  is  meant  by  "  Platonic  affection  f" — It  is  a  phrase 
derived  from  a  doctrine  of  Plato,  to  the  effect  that  happiness 
consists  in  a  "  union  of  kindred  souls  in  the  love  and  zealous 
search  for  truth." 

36.  Who  were  the  Cynics?— They  were  a  sect  of  Greek 
philosophers  noted  for  the  morose  and  snarling  character  of 
their  doctrines ;  whence,  perhaps,  their  name,  which  means 
doggish  or  dog-like  ;  though  Cynics  is  more  probably  only  an 
adapted  abbreviation  from  the  name  of  the  gymnasium  where 
Antisthenes  taught,  which  was  called  Cynosarges  ;  the  sect  was 
established  by  Antisthenes,  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  who  was  born 
B.  c.  426. 

37.  Who  was  Diogenes  ?— Vie  was  a  Greek  philosopher  at 
Athens,  of  the  sect  of  the  Cynics ;  he  inveighed  against  every 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See   page    133. 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC. 


107 


species  of  luxury,  and  practised  the  most  rigid  temperance, 
along  with  a  sacrifice  of  every  personal  comfort.  It  is  said 
that  at  night  he  slept  in  a  tub,  but  this  statement  rests  on  no 
good  authority.  Diogenes,  who  must  be  considered  a  philoso- 
pnical  fanatic,  died  324  B.  c. 

38.  Who  was  Zeno? — He  was  a  Greek  philosopher,  born 
about  366  B.  c. ;  after  finishing  his  studies  at  Athens  under 
tne  Cynics,  he  founded  a  sect  of  his  own,  called  the  Stoics. 

39.  Why  were  the  followers  of  Zeno  called  Stoics  ? — From  the 
spacious  painted  porch — stoa  being  Greek  for  porch — in  which 
their  master  taught. 

40.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  Stoical  philosophy  ? — It  was 
ress  severe  than  that  of  the  Cynics,  which  it  ultimately 
absorbed ;  yet  it  inculcated  a  certain  callousness  of  feeling, 
and  even  sanctioned  the  principle  of  self-destruction. 

41.  Who  was  Democritus? — He  was  a  Greek  philosopher, 
Oorn  about  470  or  460  B.  c,  who  taught  the  doctrine  of  the 
eternal  existence  of  atoms. 

42.  W hat  was  the  Eleatic  School? — It  was  a  philosophical 
sect  which  took  its  name  from  Elea,  a  town  in  Italy.  The 
Eleatic  phiiosophy  was  established  by  Xenophanes,  and  ex- 
pounded by  Parmenides  and  Zeno.  Its  most  flourishing  period 
was  between  540  and  460  B.  c. 

43.  Who  were  the  Epicureans  ? — They  were  followers  of  Epicu- 
rus, a  Greek  philosopher,  born  341  b.  c,  who  taught  that 
pleasure  apart  from  vicious  or  sensual  indulgences  is  the  chief 
good.  From  a  misapprehension  of  his  doctrines,  those  who 
take  inordinate  delight  in  eating  and  drinking  have  been  called 
Epicureans. 

44.  Who  was  Herodotus .?— He  was  the  earliest  Greek  his- 
torian, born  484  B.  c,  and  for  this  reason  he  has  been  called 
the  "  Father  of  History."  After  visiting  Egypt,  Palestine, 
Assyria,  and  other  countries,  and  when  advanced  in  life,  he 
wrote  his  famous  work.  The  geographic  accounts  of  Hero- 
dotus have  been  generally  verified  by  recent  travellers,  and 

tre  prized  for  their  accuracy. 

45.  Who  was  Thucydidesf — He  was  the  most  philosophical 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle.— See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65. 


108         GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC. 

of  all  ancient  historians,  a  contemporary  of  Herodotus,  and 
born  in  471  B.  C. ;  his  great  work  is  a  history  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  noted  for  accuracy  of  research,  profundity  of 
conception,  and  dignity  of  style. 

46.  Whowas  Xenophon? — He  was  a  celebrated  Greek  his- 
torian and  general,  born  about  450  B.  c,  and  was  a  pupil 
of  Socrates,  of  whom  he  has  left  Memorabilia.  Xenophon 
commanded  the  Greek  forces  in  their  retreat  from  Persia,  of 
which  event  he  gives  an  -account  in  his  Anabasis,  his  best 
known  work.  On  account  of  the  style  in  which  his  works  are 
written,  they  are  much  used  as  school-books  for  the  study  of 
Greek. 

47.  Who  was  Theocritus? — He  was  a  Greek  poet,  who 
flourished  about  280  b.  C.  ;  his  poetry  is  written  in  the  Doric 
dialect,  and  is  rich  in  simple  pastoral  subjects. 

48.  Who  was  Euclid? — He  was  an  eminent  mathematician, 
born  at  Alexandria  about  300  a.  d.,  and  belonged  to  what  is 
termed  the  Alexandrian  school  of  learning.  Euclid's  great 
work  was  his  Elements  of  Geometry,  which  is  still  used  as  a 
text-book. 

49.  Who  was  Archimedes? — He  was  a  celebrated  Greek 
mathematician  and  writer  on  mechanics,  born  about  287  B.  c. ; 
his  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  discoveries  in  mechanics 
and  hydrostatics. 

50.  Who  was  Plotinus  ? — He  was  a  Greek  philosopher  at 
Alexandria,  born  205  a.  d.,  who  is  famed  as  the  most  original 
and  speculative  thinker  among  the  Neo-Platonists. 

51.  What  was  Neo-Platonism  ? — The  word  neo\^  from  the 
Greek  neos,  new,  and  by  Neo-Platonism  is  meant  certain  new 
doctrines  founded  on  those  of  Plato ;  these  new  doctrines 
gradually  assumed  a  religious  form,  which  proved  antagonis- 
tic to  Christianity. 

52.  Who  was  Porphyrins? — He  was  the  most  distinguished 
pupil  of  Plotinus,  and  was  born  233  a.  d.  In  his  teaching, 
Neo-Platonism  took  a  distinctively  anti-Christian  tendency. 

53.  Who  was  Polybius  ? — He  was  an  eminent  Greek  historian, 
born   about  204  b.  c,  whose  work  embraces  the  history  of 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    m.      | 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles.— See  page  47. 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC.         109 

Rome  from  its  capture  by  the  Gauls  down  to  the  subjugation 
of  Macedonia.  The  history  of  Polybius  occupies  a  very  high 
rank. 

54.  Who  was  Aristarchus? — He  was  a  Greek  grammarian 
and  critic  who  lived  at  Alexandria  about  i  $0  b.  c,  and  was 
noted  for  his  labors  in  connection  with  the  text  of  Homer. 
His  principles  of  criticism  were  exceedingly  strict ;  hence, 
a  severe  but  just  critic  is  sometimes  called  a  "  modern  Aris- 
tarchus." 

55.  Who  was  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  ? — He  was  a  learned 
Greek  historian,  critic,  and  rhetorician,  born  about  50  B.  c.  His 
most  valuable  work  is  his  History  of  Rotne. 

56.  W ho  was  Diodorus  Siculus  ? — He  was  one  of  the  later 
Greek  historians  who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era ;  his  work,  called  the  Bibliotheca  or  Library, 
purports  to  be  a  history  of  the  world  from  the  Creation  till 
the  Gallic  wars  of  Julius  Caesar;  but  what  survives  of  it  is  of 
little  practical  value. 

57.  Mention  two  later  Greek  geographers. — Strabo,  born  about 
66  B.  c,  and  Pausanias,  who  lived  in  the  2d  century  of  oui 
era ;  from  their  writings,  in  addition  to  those  of  Herodotus 
and  Ptolemy  of  Alexandria,  who  flourished  about  139  A.  D- 
we  derive  our  chief  information  respecting  ancient  countries. 

58.  Who  was  Plutarch  ? —Hq  was  an  accomplished  Greek" 
writer,  who  lived  some  time  in  Rome,  about  80  A.  D.,  and 
there  taught  philosophy.  Plutarch's  reputation  rests  on  his 
well-known  Lives  of  distinguished  Greek  and  Roman  person- 
ages ;  no  one  in  ancient  or  modern  times  has  excelled  him  as 
a  biographer. 

59.  Who  was  Lucian  ? — He  was  a  Greek  writer  celebrated 
for  his  ingenuity  and  wit ;  his  best  known  works  are  his  Dia- 
logues of  the  Gods,  and  Dialogues  of  the  Dead,  in  which  he  sati- 
rizes the  mythology  and  philosophical  sects  of  the  Greeks. 
Lucian  died  about  the  end  of  the  2d  century. 

60.  Who  was  Longinus? — He  was  an  eminent  Greek  philos- 
opher and  rhetorician  who  followed  the  doctrines  of  Plato; 
he  was  employed  as  a  tutor  by  Zenobia,  the  Greek  queen  o\ 

5  A 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728.— See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors, — See    page    243, 


1 10         GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC. 

Palmyra,  and  on  a  charge  of  treason  was  beheaded  by  the 
Roman  emperor  Aurelian,  273  A.  D. 

61.  Were  the  Rojnans  as  distinguished  for  philosophy  and, 
literature  as  the  Greeks  /—No ;  the  Romans  adopted  the  Greek 
philosophy,  on  which  they  made  no  distinct  advance,  and 
their  imaginative  literature  had  not  the  range  or  brilliancy  of 
their  Greek  predecessors  ;  they  possessed  no  poet  like  Homer, 
Pindar,  or  Sappho ;  and  no  dramatist  like  ^schylus,  Sopho- 
cles, or  Euripides.  In  history,  and  jurisprudence,  they  rank 
higher.  Livy  surpasses  Herodotus  in  style  and  pictorial  ef- 
fect, and  Tacitus  may  vie  with  Thucydides. 

62.  What  was  the  fnost  brilliant  period  of  Roman  literature  f 
—A  space  of  little  more  than  ninety  years,  from  the  dic- 
tatorship of  Sulla,  81  B.  c,  to  the  death  of  Augustus,  14  a.  d. 

63.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  Romans  (including  one 
Greek,  Epictetus,)  distinguished  for  literature,  learning,  and 
general  accomplishments : 

Plautus,  the  greatest  of  all  the  Roman  comic  poets  and 
dramatists,  was  born  about  254  B.  c.  He  was  for  some  time  a 
journeyman-baker.  His  works  possess  a  strong,  racy,  popu- 
lar humor. 

Terence,  born  about  195  B.  C,  a  comic  dramatist,  contem- 
porary with  Plautus,  of  inferior  genius,  but  more  refined ;  his 
comedies  are  esteemed  for  their  purity  of  language,  and  also 
their  prudential  maxims. 

Cicero,  the  greatest  orator  of  Rome,  and  illustrious  as  a 
statesman  and  man  of  letters,  born  106  B.  c. ;  he  has  left 
numerous  works  on  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  one  of  the  best 
known  being  TusculancB  Disputationes  (Tusculan  Disputa- 
tions). 

Varro,  a  distinguished  writer  and  friend  of  Cicero.  He 
was  the  most  learned  and  the  most  voluminous  of  all  the 
Roman  authors.  He  says  himself  that  he  wrote  490  books ; 
of  which  only  two  have  survived — one  on  agricultural  matters, 
and  another  on  the  Latin  tongue,  the  latter  of  which  is  very 
valuable. 

Roscius,  a  very  celebrated  comic  actor  at  Rome,  6Z  B.  c, 


Croesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  "Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC.         i  j  i 

who  realized  a  large  fortune  by  his  profession,  which  he 
carefully  studied. 

Lucretius,  born  about  95  B.  C,  wrote  a  philosophic  poem  on 
Nature,  which  is  regarded  as  the  finest  of  didactic  poems. 

Sallust  (Sallustius),  born  86  B.  c,  noted  for  his  history  of 
Cataline's  conspiracy,  the  wars  of  the  Romans  against  Jugur- 
tha,  and  some  other  historical  writings,  which  are  composed 
in  a  picturesque  and  vigorous  style.  Sallust  was  very 
wealthy,  and  lived  in  a  splendid  villa  at  Rome.  He  died 
34  B.  c. 

Seneca  a  native  of  Spain,  but  a  Roman  citizen,  famed  for  his 
works  on  rhetoric  and  ethics  ;  in  Rome  he  acted  as  tutor  to 
Nero  ;  on  a  false  charge  of  conspiracy  he  was  condemned, 
and  bled  himself  to  death  by  opening  his  veins,  65  A.  D. 
Seneca  followed  the  Stoic  philosophy,  and  his  works  are  for 
the  most  part  ethical  treatises,  full  of  practical  thought,  ex- 
pressed in  a  clear,  forcible,  and  lively  manner. 

Livy  (Livius),  the  most  illustrious  of  the  Roman  historians, 
born  59  B.  c.  His  great  work  was  a  history  of  Rome,  which  is 
considered  a  master-piece  of  Latin  composition  ;  it  consisted 
of  142  books,  of  which,  to  the  regret  of  scholars,  all  are  lost 
but  35. 

Julius  Caesar,  renowned  as  a  general,  statesman,  and  his- 
torian, was  assassinated  44  b.  C.  Caesar's  great  works  are 
his  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  and  Civil  Wars,  which  are 
written  from  personal  observati  on,  and  are  noted  for  clear- 
ness and  purity  of  language,  and  accuracy  of  narration. 
The  Commentaries  are  a  favorite  Latin  text-book  in 
schools. 

Ovid  (Ovidius),  famed  for  various  poetical  productions, 
was  born,  43  B.  C,  and  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  by 
whom,  for  some  impropriety,  he  was  banished  to  Tomi,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Danube.  His  best  known  work  is  his  Meta- 
morphoses, which,  in  a  fanciful  way,  gives  an  account  of  all 
the  transformations  recorded  in  legend,  from  the  Creation 
down  to  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  the  change  of  whom  into  a 
star  forms  the  last  of  the  series. 

Propertius  and  Tibullus  were  two  elegiac  poets  of  Rome, 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821. — See  page  411, 


112         GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC. 

contemporary  with  Ovid ;  the  writings  of  both  are  admired, 
but  those  of  Tibullus  are  considered  to  excel  in  tenderness  of 
sentiment. 

Catullus  (Valerius  Catullus),  a  native  of  Verona,  in  the 
north  of  Italy,  where  he  was  born  Zj  b.  c.  He  is  probably  the 
most  original,  and  certainly  the  most  exquisitely  impas- 
sioned of  all  the  Latin  lyrists.  His  finest  poem  is  entitled 
Atys. 

Horace  (properly,  Quintus  Horatius  Flaccus),  a  native  of 
the  south  of  Italy,  was  born  65  b.  C,  and  became  a  great  favor- 
ite as  a  poet  at  Rome,  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus. He  excelled  as  a  lyrist ;  and  his  pieces,  lively,  and 
often  satiric,  are  exquisitely  finished.  No  Roman  writer  is 
so  universally  popular  as  Horace. 

Virgil  (properly,  Publius  Virgilius  Maro),  distinguished  for 
his  epic,  didactic,  and  pastoral  poetry ;  he  is  sometimes  styled 
the  bard  of  Mantua,  from  having-been  born  in  a  village  near 
that  city,  70  B.  c.  Virgil  was  a  contemporary  of  Horace,  and 
died  19  B.  C.  ;  his  works  are  the  ^neid  Georgics  and  Eclogues. 
The  ^;2^2V/,  an  epic  poem  on  the  model  of  Homer's  Odyssey 
is  not  marked  by  any  striking  originality,  but  contains 
many  mildly  beautiful  passages,  and  more  descriptions 
of  scenery  than  any  other  ancient  poem.  It  is  deservedly  in 
repute  as  a  text-book,  from  the  finish  of  its  language  and 
versification. 

Vitruvius,  who  flourished  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  is 
noted  for  his  writings  on  architecture,  and  to  his  taste  is 
partly  imputable  the  Roman  adaptation  of  Greek  art. 

Cornelius  Nepos,  a  historian  of  the  ist  century  B.  C,  who 
wrote  lives  of  distinguished  warriors  and  statesmen ;  his 
work  is  used  as  a  text-book  in  schools. 

Pha^drus,  originally  a  slave,  who  for  a  time  was  in  the  ser- 
vice of  Augustus  ;  his  fame  rests  on  his  fables  in  verse,  which 
are  much  used  as  a  school-book. 

Lucan,  a  poet,  born  about  38  A.  D.,  nephew  of  Seneca;  his 
only  extant  work  is  the  poem  entitled  Pharsalia,  which  nar- 
rates the  contest  of  Caesar  and  Pompey.  Having  incurred 
the  enmity  of  Nero,  he   was  condemned  to  death,  and,  like 


"  Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHIL OSOPH Y,  ETC,         113 

his  celebrated  uncle,   preferred  to  die  by  having  his  veins 
opened ;  he  thus  perished  in  his  27th  year. 

Columella,  a  learned  writer  on  agriculture,  whose  chiei 
work  on  that  subject  is  still  prized  for  its  sagacity  and  prac- 
tical character ;  he  flourished  50  a.  d. 

Epictetus  (a  Greek)  flourished  in  the  first  part  of  the  2d 
century  b.  c.  ;  he  wrote  a  compendium  of  the  Stoic  philosophy, 
and  his  sayings  were  collected  by  one  of  his  pupils.  He  rose 
from  the  condition  of  a  slave  to  places  of  honor,  and  was 
highly  esteemed  for  the  purity  of  his  morals. 

Pliny  (Plinius) ;  there  were  two  distinguished  Romans  of 
this  name,  uncle  and  nephew,  usually  known  as  Pliny  the 
Elder,  and  Pliny  the  Younger. 

Pliny  the  Elder,  a  wealthy  patrician,  was  born  23  A.  D.,  and 
served  for  some  time  with  distinction  in  the  army.  He  was 
noted  for  his  temperance,  industry,  and  economic  use  of  time, 
by  which  means  he,  in  the  course  of  a  busy  professional  career, 
digested  and  wrote  a  variety  of  works,  of  which  only  one  has 
survived,  the  Historia,  Naturalis  (Natural  History) — a  most 
comprehensive  work,  for  it  embraces  the  material  world, 
man,  animals,  plants,  medicines,  and  other  subjects.  Pliny 
was  killed  by  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  79  A.  d. 

Pliny  the  Younger,  born  61  a.  d.,  noted  for  his  Epistles,  of 
which  there  are  ten  books,  in  which  he  gives  an  account  of 
the  early  Christians  that  is  greatly  to  their  credit. 

Quintillian,  author  of  a  Systematic  Treatise  on  Rhetoric,  in 
12  books,  flourished  about  90  A.D.,  and  is  reckoned  as  the 
greatest  authority  on  style  among  the  ancients. 

Tacitus,  the  greatest  of  the  Roman  historians,  was  born 
probably  about  60  a.  d.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Rome  during 
the  earlier  years  of  the  empire,  also  a  work  on  Germany,  and 
a  life  of  Agricola.  The  writings  of  Tacitus  unite  philosophical 
observation  with  a  picturesque  narration  of  facts. 

Celsus,  a  celebrated  Latin  physician  and  writer  on  medical 
subjects,  who  flourished,  it  is  supposed,  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  and  has  been  styled,  the  "  Roman  Hippocrates." 


The   Earth's      Surface     is      200,000,000     Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


C 
ho 

B 
O 


1 14         GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PHILOSOPHY,  ETC. 

His  great  work  is  De  Medicind,  a  Treatise  on  Medicine  and 
Surgery. 

Galen,  a  celebrated  physician,  born  130  a.  d.,  practised 
medicine  for  some  time  at  Rome,  and  served  as  a  physician  to 
the  Roman  army.  Galen  was  an  Asiatic  Greek  by  birth.  He 
died  about  201  a.  d.,  and  left  numerous  treatises  on  medicine, 
pharmacy,  and  surgery,  also  on  philosophical  subjects. 

Macrobius,  a  writer  belonging  to  the  4th  or  5th  century  ; 
author,  among  other  things,  of  a  work  entitled  Saturnalia, 
which  is  valued  for  its  illustrations  of  ancient  manners  and 
customs. 

64.  Who  were  the  Mimi  of  the  Rojnans  ? — The  miini  were 
buffoons,  who  appeared  at  convivial  meetings  to  entertain  the 
guests  by  their  farcical  humor.  The  word  iniinicry  is  derived 
from  them. 

65.  Who  were  the  Pantojnimi of  the  Romans? — They  were 
tragic  actors  who  represented  characters  and  emotions  by 
gestures  and  posturing  alone.  The  modern  term  pantomime 
is  derived  from  the  Roman  Pantomimi. 

66.  What  is  the  origin  of  Harlequiji  ? — The  character  of 
Harlequin,  with  his  parti-colored  dress,  is  derived  from  that 
of  a  Roman  7niine.  Some  think  that  the  character  is  a  kind 
of  burlesque  of  Mercury  with  his  caduceus  or  short  sword, 
to  render  himself  invisible.  The  modern  clown  in  a  har- 
lequinade represents  Momus,  the  buffoon  of  the  Greek 
mythology. 

6'j.  What  did  the  Greeks  consider  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the 
World?—!.  The  Pyramids  of  Egypt ;  2.  The  Walls  and  Hang- 
ing-gardens of  Babylon  ;  3.  The  Pharos  at  Alexandria  ;  4.  The 
Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  ;  5.  The  Statue  of  the  Olympian 
Jupiter  sculptured  by  Phidias,  and  composed  of  ivory  and 
gold ;  6.  The  splendid  sepulchre  erected  by  Queen  Artemisia 
to  her  husband  Mausolus,  353  B.  c. — hence  the  English  term 
mausoleum ;  and,  7.  The  Colossus  of  Rhodes. 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,    in    Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the  Gods — See  page   248. 


02 


MEDIE  VAL  LEARNING  AND  AR  TS.  i  j  ^ 

MEDIEVAL  LEARNING  AND  ARTS. 

1 .  How  long  did  Latin  continue  to  be  the  language  of  literature 
after  the  dissolution  of  the  Roman  empire  ? — It  continued  to  be 
employed  by  the  fathers  of  the  church,  scholastics,  and  others, 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  14th  century,  when  it  began  to 
be  superseded  by  modern  languages. 

2.  What  is  Patristic  Latin  ?—lt  is  the  Latin  as  written  by 
fathers  {patres)  of  the  church,  and  is  considered  to  be  less 
pure  and  elegant  than  that  of  the  classical  Roman  authors. 

3.  Who  were  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  ?  -They  were  a  long 
series  of  ecclesiastical  teachers,  who  lived  from  the  times  of 
the  apostles  until  about  the  7th  century,  and  generally  left 
treatises  defining  the  early  views  and  doctrines  of  the  church. 

4.  Mention  the  names  of  some  of  the  fathers  ? — The  list,  in- 
cluding Greek  and  Latin  fathers,  is  very  numerous  ;  a  few  of 
their  names,  indiscriminately,  are  as  follows — Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Lactantius,  Origen,  Eusebius,  Athanasius,  Chry- 
sostom,  Tertullian,  Augustine,  Ambrose,  and  Jerome. 

5.  Who  was  Arius  ? — He  was  a  religious  teacher  in  the  early 
part  of  the  4th  century,  who,  while  professing  Christianity, 
maintained  certain  doctrines  which  were  declared  heretical 
by  the  famous  Council  of  Nice,  held  325  a.d.  Arianism,  as  it 
is  called  from  him,  is  opposed  to  the  common  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  and  holds  that  the  Son  is  inferior  to  the  Father. 

6.  Who  were  the  Scholastics? — The  name  scholastics,  or 
schoolmen,  is  ordinarily  applied  to  certain  famed  teachers  of 
philosophy  and  theology  from  the  9th  to  the  14th  century— 
in  short,  to  the  men  who  taught  the  higher  branches  of 
education  to  the  clergy  and  others,  either  in  the  monastic 
schools  or  in  the  later  universities. 

7.  Where  did  the  scholastics  ply  their  vocation? — Generally 
in  schools  attached  to  monasteries,  out  of  which  there  was 
little  security  for  students  in  the  middle  ages.  Most  of  the 
scholastics  were  monks. 

8.  Mention  the  names  of  some  eminent  scholastics. — Albertus 
Magnus  (died  1280),  Alexander  of  Hales,  Thomas  Aquinas, 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


1 1 6  ME  DIE  VA  L  LEA  RNING  A  ND  A  R  TS. 

and  Duns  Scotus  ;  this  last  flourished  in  the  14th  century,  and 
was  particularly  famous. 

9.  Pf^/to  was  Bede? — The  "  Venerable  Bede,"  as  he  is  usually 
called  from  his  learning  and  piety,  was  born  about  673,  and 
became  a  monk  at  Jarrow,  Northumberland ;  here  he  com- 
posed several  learned  works,  particularly  an  ecclesiastical 
history  of  England  down  to  731,  which  constitutes  an  in- 
valuable body  of  facts  concerning  the  early  condition  of  the 
country;  it  was  written  in  Latin,  but  has  been  translated  into 
English. 

10.  What  were  the  Sagas? — The  sagas  were  heroic  poems 
«nd  histories  of  the  northern  or  Scandinavian  people,  about  the 
12th  century  ;  there  were  several  celebrated  sagas. 

11.  What  were  the  Eddas? — Edda  is  the  name  given  to  two 
collections  of  Scandinavian  myths  or  fables,  the  older  being  in 
verse,  and  executed,  probably  in  the  12th  century,  by  Ssemund 
the  Wise ;  the  younger  in  prose,  by  Snorri  Sturleson,  in  the 
13th  century. 

•^^ll/lliiy-I^TI  S»^  ^^'  ^^^^^  ^^  meant  dy  I^unes  ?  —Runes  is 
ill   niAt>  1  I  y*V    the  name  given  to  a  kind  of  letter  or  alpha- 

V\{h  M  T  T  F  H  ^^^  "^^^  ^"  ^^^^y  times  by  the  Scandinavian 
^h-tl^MlxirM  ^"^  German  peoples.  They  were  much  em- 
1  r  1 1\  I  I  n4  n  ployed  as  symbols  in  divination  and  other 
U[;^  tr^PrN   ^^S^^^^  practices.    Old  monuments  covered 

IS  V  k  \  r  c>t>  t-[\  ^^^^  Runic  symbols  still  exist  in  many  parts 

n  h  M  f  [\>  Fm  c>f  the  British  Islands. 

Dfl  ^  ^)1\'  ff^'^  I  H  ^^'  ^^^^  ^^"^  Thomas  a  Kempzsf—HQ  was 
a  native  of  Kempen.  in  Germany,  where  he 
was  born  in  1379;  he  became  a  monk  in  an  Augustinian  con- 
vent near  Zwoll,  and  wrote  several  works  of  a  religious  nature  ; 
one  of  these,  styled  the  Imitation  of  Christ,  justly  admired 
for  its  piety  and  simplicity,  has  been  translated  into  many 
languages,  and  perhaps  been  more  frequently  printed  than 
any  other  book,  except  the  Bible. 

14.  What  was  the  period  in  which  Arabic  learning  and  liter- 
ature flourished? — It  extended  from  the  8th  to  the  14th  cen- 
tury, when  the  learning  and  arts  of  the  Arabians  were  extin- 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


S 


MEDIEVAL  LEARNING  AND  ARTS. 


117 


guished  by  the  barbarous  tribes  who  migrated  from  Central 
Asia. 

1 5.  Who  was  Abulfeda .?'— He  was  a  Syrian  ruler,  distinguished 
as  a  writer  of  several  works  in  Arabic,  on  geography,  history, 
and  other  subjects;  he  died  in  1331. 

16.  Who  was  Hafiz? — He  was  an  eminent  Persian  poet, 
who  died  about  1388.  His  collection  of  works  is  entitled  the 
Divdn,  and  consists  chiefly  of  odes,  or,  as  they  are  called  in 
Persian,  ghazels. 

1 7.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  Arabian  Nights'  Etitertaimnents  f 
— The  work  under  that  title  is  a  collection  of  stories  abound- 
.ng  in  wild  oriental  fictions  which  originated  partly  in  India, 
Persia,  and  Arabia,  and  were  perfected  in  Persia  shortly  after 
ehe  reign  of  the  Caliph  Haroun  al  Raschid. 

18.  When  did  Haroun  al  Raschid  live  ? — He  lived  in  the  8th 
century,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Charlemagne. 

19.  When  did  the  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments  become 
knowjt  in  Europe? — They  were  first  made  known  under  a 
French  translation  by  M.  Galland,  1704;  but  the  best  trans- 
lation is  the  English  one  executed  by  Dr.  Edward  Lane,  and 
published  in  1839. 

20.  What  are  Improvisator i  ? — Improvisatori  is  the  Italian 
name  applied  to  persons  who  make  extempore  verses,  some- 
times in  public  places  of  resort  for  general  amusement ;  the 
term  signifies  to  invent  without  premeditation. 

21.  Is  the  practice  of  improvising  ancient  ? — Yes;  it  greatly 
prevailed  during  the  middle  ages,  and  served  the  purposes  of 
literature  where  books  were  little  known.  The  practice  is 
still  pursued  in  several  Eastern  countries. 

22.  What  was  Alchemy? — A  supposed  hidden  or  secret  art 
of  transmuting  the  baser  metals  into  gold,  by  means  of  an 
unknown  substance  called  Wi^  Philosopher  s  stone ;  also  the 
art  of  making  an  elixir  to  prolong  human  life,  called  the 
Elixir  Vitce. 

23.  Where  did  alchemy  originate  ? — It  originated  in  ancient 
times  in  Egypt,  and  after  being  practised  among  the  Romans, 
it  formed  a  pursuit  of  various  learned  enthusiasts  in  the  mid- 


The  Earth's  Distance  from  the  Sun  is  92,000,000  Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


118  MEDIEVAL  LEARNING  AND  ARTS. 

die  ages.     The  term  alchemy  is  Arabic,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
from  Cham,  the  Scripture  name  of  Egypt. 

24.  How  did  the  science  of  Chemistry  originate  ? — It  origina- 
ted in  the  vain  pursuits  of  the  alchemists,  who,  while  engaged 
in  their  secret  experiments  with  retorts  and  crucibles,  made 
many  real  and  valuable  chemical  discoveries,  and  founded 
the  science  of  chemistry. 

25.  Who  was  Gebir  ? — He  was  an  Arabian  alchemist,  who 
lived  in  the  8th  century,  and  wrote  the  first  book  on  chem- 
istry. 

26.  What  were  Occult  Arts? — They  were  hidden  or  secret 
arts ;  the  term  occult,  from  the  Latin,  signifies  concealed. 
The  ancients  practised  various  arts  of  this  kind,  such  as 
divination  or  fortune-telling,  necromancy,  alchemy,  and 
astrology. 

27.  Explain  the  nature  of  Astrology. — It  was  the  delusive 
art  of  divining  the  fortune  of  individuals  from  the  position  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  at  the  time  of  their  birth.  The  term  as- 
trology is  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies  a  knowledge  of  the 
stars. 

28.  What  nations  were  believed  to  be  proficients  in  astrology? 
— The  Egyptians,  Chaldseans,  Hindus,  Chinese,  and  latterly 
the  Arabians,  who  pursued  it  with  great  ardor  from  the  7th 
to  the  13th  century. 

29.  What  was  the  great  discovery  that  shook  confidence  in  as- 
trology  ? — The  discovery  by  Copernicus  of  the  true  system  of 
planetary  motions  (1540),  after  which  astrology  was  pursued 
only  by  weak-minded  persons  and  impostors.  The  latest  as- 
trologer of  any  note  in  England  was  William  Lilly,  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I. 

30.  Who  was  Nostradamus? — He  was  a  celebrated  French 
astrologer  ol  the  i6th  century ;  he  received  encouragement 
from  the  court  of  France,  and  died  1566.  Nostradamus 
wrote  an  almanac,  which  served  as  a  model  for  subsequent 
ones. 

31.  Who  was  Paracelsus  ? — He  was  a  clever  and  audacious 
Swiss,  born  about  1493,  who  adopted  this  name,  and  became 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409, 


AFRICAN    HEATHEN    DEITY  ;     HOLDING    A    CARVED 
WOODEN    FETISH. Up. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    18,    1815.— See   page    368. 


MEDIEVAL  LEARNING  AND  ARTS.  n^ 

notorious  for  his  real  or  pretended  cures  of  diseases,  in  which 
he  repudiated  Galen  and  all  the  old  medical  authorities.  Para- 
celsus partook  of  the  nature  and  manner  of  a  charlatan,  but 
his  novel  views  helped  considerably  to  break  up  antiquated 
notions,  and  to  improve  the  practice  of  medicine.  He  was 
killed,  1 541. 

32.  Who  were  the  Rosicrucians  ? — They  were  members  of  a 
secret  society,  alleged  to  have  been  founded  by  Christian  Ros- 
enkreutz,  a  German,  in  the  14th  century,  who  was  said  to 
have  lived  in  India  and  Egypt,  and  there  learned  ancient  mys- 
tic arts.  The  Rosicrucians  had  various  fraternities  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  17th  century,  but  they  ultimately  died  out. 

33  What  peculiar  fa7icies  regarding  the  unseen  world  pre- 
vailed in  the  middle  ages? — There  was  a  belief  in  "  Spirits  of 
the  Elements" — the  spirits  of  fire  being  called  Salamanders  ; 
those  of  the  water,  Undijies ;  of  the  air.  Sylphs ;  and  of  the 
earth,  Gnomes;  all  which  ridiculous  and  superstitious  fancies 
have  been  made  available  by  poets. 

34.  What  is  Superstition  ? — Absurd  opinions  concerning  the 
order  of  Nature  and  attributes  of  God ;  such  as  a  belief  in 
magic,  witchcraft,  fetishes,  fairies,  and  ghosts. 

35.  What  is  a  fetish  ? — A  fetish  is  a  thing  supposed  to  be 
invested  with  marvellous  powers,  such  l.s  a  tree,  carved  piece 
of  wood,  or  any  bundle  of  trash. 

36.  Where  has  a  belief  iti  fetishes  prevailed? — Among  heathen 
nations  in  ancient  and  modern  times ;  but  it  now  more  parti- 
cularly prevails  in  certain  negro  nations  of  Africa. 

37.  What  are  fairies  or  elves  ? — They  were  imagined  to  be 
diminutive,  bright,  lively,  aerial  beings,  usually  of  a  kindly 
disposition,  though  sometimes  a  little  malignant.  A  belief  in 
beings  of  this  kind  prevailed  from  the  earliest  times  among 
the  Teutonic  and  Celtic  nations  of  Europe. 

38.  What  style  of  Arc?iitecture  arose  in  the  middle  ages  ? — 
The  pointed  or  Gothic  style,  as  developed  in  the  building  of 
abbeys,  churches,  and  other  ecclesiastical  structures. 

39.  What  were  the  Masonic  Guilds  of  the  middle  ages  ? — They 
were  fraternities  of  practical  architects  and  masons,  who  wer© 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    i6ig. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


120 


MEDIEVAL  LEARNING  AND  ARTS, 


employed  to  rear  those  grand  ecclesiastical  structures  which 
still  survive  to  attest  the  piety  of  the  founders,  and  the  skill 
of  the  artisans  who  constructed  them. 

40.  Were  the  masonic  fraternities  stationary  ? — No  ;  the) 
moved  about  from  country  to  country,  fostered  by  the 
church,  and  protected  by  the  rulers  who  required  their  ser- 
vices. These  medieval  fraternities  are  typified  in  the  lodges 
of  "free-masons,"  in  modern  times. 

41.  What  was  the  state  of  the  drama  i7i  the  middle  ages? — • 
There  was  no  drama,  properly  so  called ;  the  ancient  Greek 
and  Roman  drama  had  sunk  and  disappeared,  and  the  only 
theatrical  performances  consisted  of  "  mysteries  and  miracle 
plays,"  and  "  mummeries." 

42.  What  were  Mysteries  a?id  Miracle  Plays? — They  were  a 
species  of  drama  founded  on  the  historical  parts  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  and  the  lives  of  the  saints,  performed 
first  in  churches,  and  afterwards  on  platforms  in  the  streets. 
Their  original  design  was  to  instruct  the  people,  but  they  lat- 
terly degenerated  into  scenes  of  coarse  and  irreverent  buf- 
foonery. 

43.  What  were  the  Mmmnerzes  of  the  middle  ages  ? — Mum- 
meries were  sports  in  masks  ;  a  mummer  is  one  whose  face 
<s  masked  or  concealed — hence  the  familiar  word  i7ium,  to 
conceal  or  be  secret.  The  term  mummery  is  believed  to  be 
originally  from  Moutus,  the  god  of  mockery  of  the  Greek 
mythology. 

44.  What  were  the  Romances  of  the  middle  ages  ? — They  were 
stories  concerning  saints,  knights,  giants,  sorcerers,  beautiful 
but  distressed  damsels,  &c. ;  they  originated  chiefly  in  the 
ages  of  chivalry — nth  to  the  13th  century. 

45.  Explain  how  these  stories  were  called  "  romances." — They 
were  so  called  from  being  narrated  in  modern  dialects  of  the 
Roman  (Latin)  language,  particularly  French  and  Spanish. 
The  modern  word  "  romance"  is  derived  from  these  old  medie- 
val romances. 

46.  Mention  some  of  the  more  noted  medieval  romances. — The 
story  of  Amadis  gf  Gaul,  and  the  story  of  Arthur  and  his 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long. — See    page    302. 


O 


MEDIEVAL  LEARNING  AND  ARTS.  12 1 

Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  are  two  of  the  most  famous. 
Certain  stories  concerning  a  set  of  legendary  heroes,  called  the 
"Seven  Champions  of  Christendom," also  belonged  to  this, 
class  of  old  and  popular  romances. 

47.  Who  were  the  saints  of  the  middle  ages? — They  were 
persons  distinguished  for  an  ardent  spirit  of  devotion,  as 
well  as  for  their  labors  as  Christian  missionaries;  for  ex- 
ample, St.  Augustine,  St.  Basil,  St.  Benedict,  St.  Anthony  the 
Great,  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  and  St.  An- 
thony of  Padua.  Several  were  renowned  as  thaumaturgists, 
and  others  as  martyrs. 

48.  What  is  a  thaumaturgist  ?—A  thaumaturgist  is  one  who 
is  alleged  to  work  wonders  or  miracles ;  the  term  is  from  the 
Greek  thaurna,  wonder,  and  erg07i,  a  work.  The  lives  of  the 
thaumaturgical  saints  were  favorite  books  in  the  middle  ages. 

49.  What  were  patron  saints? — In  the  middle  ages,  every 
country  and  city  had  its  patron  or  tutelary  saint,  who  was 
supposed  to  act  as  its  protector.  For  example,  England  had 
St.  George  ;  Scotland,  St.  Andrew  ;  Ireland,  St.  Patrick  ;  Wales, 
St.  David;  France,  St.  Denis;  Paris,  St.  Genevieve;  Naples, 
St.  Januarius  ;  Edinburgh,  St.  Giles  ;  and  so  on. 

50.  What  were   Saints    Days  ? — They  were  days  on  which 
each    particular     saint  was    specially   honored.      Thus,   St. 
George's  day  was  23d  April;  St.  Andrew's  day,  30th  Novem 
ber;  St.  Patrick's  day,  17th   March;  and  St.    David's  day,  isi 
March. 

51.  What  were  the  fabulous  animals  of  the  middle  ages? — 
They  were  monstrous  dragons,  which  devoured  flocks  and 
herds;  unicorns,  with  a  single  pointed  horn  in  the  forehead ; 
and  salamanders,  which  lived  in  the  fire.  Legendary  stories 
and  ballads  about  dragons  are  common  in  every  European 
country. 

52.  What  is  the  story  of  St.  George  and  the  dragon? — It  is  a 
medieval  romance,  detailing  the  exploit  of  St.  George,  a  gal- 
lant Christian  hero,  who  slew  a  monstrous  dragon  with  his 
sword,  after  the  animal  had  broken  the  lance  with  which  he 
first  attacked  it. 

6 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators.— See    page    278 


122 


CONTINENTAL  LITER  A  TURE, 


53.  How  has  this  legend  been  commemorated f — By  the  figure 
of  St.  George,  as  patron  saint  of  England,  being  used  in  the 
insignia  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  and  being  also  placed  on 
coins. 

54.  What  was  the  war-cry  of  the  English  in  the  middle  ages  ? 
— It  was  "  St.  George  for  Merry  England" — a  cry  significant 
of  the  general  character  of  the  people,  and  their  good-hu- 
mored sports  and  pastimes. 

55.  What  is  the '' Order  of .  the  Garter?" — It  is  an  English 
order  of  knighthood,  instituted  by  Edward  III.,  on  St.  George's 
day,  1344,  and  is  the  highest  honor  of  the  kind. 

56.  What  is  the  story  of  its  origin  ? — It  is  related  that  the 
t^ountessof  Salisbury,  in  dancing  with  Edward  III.,  happened 
to  lose  her  garter,  whereupon  the  king  picked  it  up,  and  tied 
it  round  his  own  leg;  but  that  this  act  might  not  be  misinter- 
preted, he  restored  the  garter  to  the  countess,  exclaiming : 
"  Honi  soil  qui  mal  y  pense'  (Shame  to  him  who  thinks  evil), 
vvhich  exclamation  remains  the  motto  of  the  order,  and  is 
seen  in  the  royal  arms. 

57.  What  was  the  Renaissance? — The  term  "Renaissance" 
is  applied  to  the  revival  of  literature  and  arts  in  France  in  the 
early  part  of  the  i6th  century — to  which  revival  Francis  L 
and  his  accomplished  sister,  Margaret  of  Valois,  materially 
contributed. 


CONTINENTAL  LITERATURE. 

Italy. 

I .  When  does  Italian  literature  commence  ? — It  begins  as  early 
as  the  13th  century,  or  previous  to  the  general  revival  of 
learning;  the  following  is  a  summary  of  the  principal  Italian 
writers,  and  other  learned  men  of  note — 

Dante,  an  eminent  poet,  born  at  Florence,  1265;  his  great 
work  is  the  Divina  Commedia,  an  epic  poem  consisting  of 
three  parts,  L'Inferno,  II  Purgatorio,  and  II  Paradiso ;  the 
poem  is  of  the  highest  order,  and  ranks  Dante  with  Homer 
and  Milton. — Died  1321. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779.— See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the   Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See  page    133. 


CONTINENTAL   LITERA  TURE. 


23 


Petrarch,  an  eminent  lyrical  poet ;  his  best  poems  are  son- 
nets to  a  lady,  named  Laura,  for  whom  he  nourished  a  senti- 
mental  affection.  Petrarch  lived  for  a  time  at  Vaucluse,  near 
Avignon,  whence  his  fame  spread  over  Europe. — Died    1374. 

Boccaccio,  a  celebrated  novelist;  he  is  best  known  for  his 
Decameron,  a  series  of  little  stories,  from  which  later  novelists 
and  dramatists  have  largely  borrowed. — Died  1375. 

Louis  Cornaro,  a  Venetian  nobleman,  renowned  for  his  ex- 
ample of  temperance,  which  he  describes  in  his  work,  Dts- 
corsi  della  Vita  Sobria  (Essay  on  Temperate  Living). — Died  at 
nearly  100  years  of  age,  1566. 

Macchiavelli,  a  famed  statesman  and  writer  on  political  sub- 
jects. His  most  celebrated  treatise  is  Del  Prmcipe,  or  how 
princes  should  govern  their  states.  The  principles  inculcated 
by  the  author  in  this  work  are  so  bad,  that  it  has  been  a  ques- 
tion ever  since,  whether  he  wrote  in  earnest  or  in  covert 
satire.— Died  1527. 

Ariosto,  celebrated  for  his  poem,  Orlando  Furzoso,  which 
he  wrote  as  a  continuation  of  a  previous  romantic  epic, 
Orlando  Binajttorato,  by  Boiardo.  Ariosto's  poetry  exhibits  a 
great  richness  of  invention,  with  a  highly-finished  style. — 
Died  1533. 

Guicciardini,  famed  as  a  historian  and  statesman ;  his  great 
work  is  his  History  of  Italy ;  he  has  been  styled  the  Italian 
Polybius. — Died  1540. 

Torquato  Tasso,  celebrated  for  his  epic  poem,  Gerusalemine 
Liberata  (Jerusalem  Delivered),  and  also  for  his  lyrical  pieces, 
which  are  remarkable  for  their  pathos  and  musical  sweetness 
of  versification. — Died  1595. 

Guarini,  famed  for  his  elegant  pastoral  drama,  II  Pastor 
Fido  (The  Faithful  Shepherd).  Guarini  was  one  of  several 
Italian  writers  who  revived  the  regular  drama,  after  its  long 
depression  during  the  middle  ages. — Died  161 2. 

Tassoni,  celebrated  as  the  writer  of  a  comic  epic,  La  Secchia 
Rapita  (Rape  of  the  Bucket),  satirizing  the  petty  wars  of  the 
Italian  cities;  but  he  wrote  a  number  of  other  works. — Died 

1635. 

Galileo — properly,  Galileo  Galilei,  celebrated  for  his  dis- 
coveries in  physical  science,  confirmatory  of  the  Copernican 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle.— See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65 


124  CONTINENTAL  LITERATURE, 

system ;  his  noted  work  on  this  subject,  a  Dialogue  concern- 
ing the  two  RuHng  Systems  of  the  World,  subjected  him  to 
imprisonment  by  the  Inquisition,  1633.  Galileo  occupies  a 
high  position  in  the  annals  of  science. — Died  1642. 

Torricelli,  a  philosopher,  and  follower  of  Galileo,  who  first 
ascertained  the  pressure  of  the  air,  and  invented  the  barometer. 
— Died  1647. 

Metastasio,  author  of  numerous  dramas  and  musical  can- 
tatas ;  his  original  name  was  Trapassi,  of  which  Metastasio  is 
a  Greek  translation. — Died  1782. 

Galvani,  a  celebrated  physiologist,  discoverer  of  that  species 
of  electrical  action,  named  from  him  Galvanism. — Died  1798. 

Alfieri,  a  poet  and  writer  of  tragedies,  who  acquired  some 
notoriety  by  marrying  the  Countess  of  Albany,  widow  of 
Prince  Charles  Edward  Stuart. — Died  1803. 

Spain  and  Portugal. 

2.  What  is  "  The  Cid?" — The  Cid  is  the  title  of  an  extremely 
old  Spanish  poem  or  ballad,  having  for  its  illustrious  hero 
Don  Rodrigo  Ruy  Diaz,  who  by  the  Moors  was  called  Es-Std 
(lord  or  prince),  which  designation  became  corrupted  into  Cid. 
The  ballad  refers  to  the  Cid's  encounters  with  the  Moors  of 
Spain  in  the  8th  century,  and  was  written  about  11 50. 

3.  Who  was  Cervantes? — Miguel  de  Cervantes  Saavedra  was 
born  about  1547,  and  died  1616.  He  suffered  many  misfor- 
tunes, and  for  the  most  part  lived  poor  and  friendless ;  yet  he 
was  the  greatest  writer  that  Spain  ever  produced.  His  prin- 
cipal work  was  Do7i  Quixote,  a  satiric  and  amusing  romance, 
the  first  part  of  which  was  published  1605. 

4.  Who  was  Lope  de  Vega? — He  was  an  extraordinarily 
prolific  Spanish  dramatist,  a  contemporary  of  Cervantes  and 
of  Shakspeare ;  his  dramas  are  heroic  or  historical  comedies. 
— Died  1635.  He  was  succeeded  by  Calderon,  whose  dramas 
possess  a  high  polish,  and  are  full  of  brilliant  fancy. 

5.  Who  was  Quevedo  ? — Quevedo  was  a  Spanish  poet  and 
novelist,  noted  for  his  humorous  and  satirical  writings  ;  his 
most  famed  production  was  his  Visions,  which  consist  of  re- 


[ulius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page 


III. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles. — See   page  47. 


CONTINENTAL   LITER  A  TURE. 


125 


velations  of  the  future  world,  depicting  the  end  of  vanity  and 
punishment  of  crime. — Died  1645. 

6.  Who  was  Camoens  ? — Camoens  was  a  Portuguese  poet, 
and  the  only  writer  of  his  country  who  has  obtained  much 
celebrity  abroad  ;  his  fame  rests  on  the  epic  poem,  Os  Lusiadas, 
or  the  Lusitanians — the  ancient  name  of  that  part  of  the 
Peninsula  now  called  Portugal  having  been  Lusitania. — Died 
1579- 

France. 

7.  When  did  French  literature  commence  f — It  commenced 
with  the  songs  of  the  troubadours,  the  romances  of  chivalry, 
and  the  fabliaux — all  current  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries. 

8.  What  were  fabliaux  ? — They  were  short  metrical  narra- 
tives on  passing  events  or  familiar  subjects,  generally  satiric 
and  humorous  ;  they  were  Q-dW^di  fabliaux — that  is,  things  told, 
stories,  or  narratives  {ixovn  fabulari,  to  speak  or  tell),  and  their 
narrator  was  known  as  difableor. 

9.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  noted  French  writers 
and  men  distinguished  for  learning  previous  to  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.— 

Robert  Sorbon,  an  eminent  theologian  in  the  reign  of  St. 
Louis,  who,  about  1250,  founded  a  college  of  education  in 
Paris,  which  became  celebrated  under  the  name  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  and  existed  until  overthrown  by  the  revolution.  The 
buildings  have  been  restored  to  the  service  of  public  instruc- 
tion, and  lectures  in  theology  and  some  other  branches  are 
still  given  there  in  connection  with  the  Academy  of  Paris. 

Froissart,  a  lively  and  observant  writer,  who  flourished 
in  the  14th  century,  and  was  a  favorite  at  various  courts  in 
Europe.  His  fame  rests  on  his  Chronicles,  an  amusing  account 
of  the  events  of  his  time,  prized  for  its  illustrations  of  courtly 
usages. — Died  1410. 

Philippe  de  Comines,  a  statesman,  first  in  the  service  of 
Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  and  afterwards  a  confidential 
minister  of  Louis  XL;  he  wrote  valuable  and  interesting 
Memoirs. — Died  1509. 

Rabelais,  a  satirical  and  humorous  writer,  whose  fame  rests 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were    a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors.— See    page    243. 


1 


126  CONTINENTAL  LITERATURE. 

on  a  romance,  the  heroes  of  which  are  Gargantua  and  Panta* 
gruel ;  the  work  is  full  of  exceedingly  coarse  satire  and  buf- 
foonery.— Died  1533. 

John  Calvin  (French,  Jean  Cauvin),  a  theologian  and  re- 
former, who  wrote  in  Latin  and  in  French ;  his  chief  works 
are  his  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,  and  his  Commentaries 
on  the  Scriptures. — Died  1564. 

Ronsard,  an  eminent  lyrical  poet,  whose  verses  were 
favorites  with  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. — Died  1585. 

Brantome,  a  writer  of  memoirs  descriptive  of  the  manners 
of  his  time — Charles  IX.  to  Louis  XIIL     He  died  1614. 

Montaigne,  distinguished  as  a  writer  of  philosophical  and 
moral  Essays,  \i\\\c\i  have  been  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages, and  are  of  a  sceptical  character. — Died  1592. 

Francis  de  Sales  was  famed  for  his  works  of  a  devotional 
character,  the  principal  of  which  is  his  Introduction  to  a 
Religious  Life  ;  and  also  for  his  services  in  recovering  large 
numbers  to  the  Church  of  Rome  after  they  had  become  mem- 
bers of  the  Reformed  communions. — Died  1622. 

Sully,  a  statesman  and  writer  of  memoirs  illustrative  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV. —  Died  1641. 

10.  The  following  were  the  distinguished  writers  in  the 
long  reign  of  Louis  .XIV.,  1643 — 171 5,  ordinarily  called  the 
Augustan  age  of  French  literature — 

Descartes,  an  eminent  philosophical  thinker  and  writer, 
who  opened  the  way  for  Locke,  Newton,  and  Leibnitz.  The 
leading  peculiarity  of  his  metaphysical  system  was  the  attempt 
to  deduce  all  moral  and  religious  truth  from  self-conscious- 
ness.— Died  1650. 

Blaise  Pascal,  a  writer  of  works  of  a  pious  and  religious 
nature  ;  the  two  best  known  are  his  Pensees  (Thoughts),  and 
Lettres  Provinciates  (Provincial  Letters),  which  are  considered 
among  the  finest  specimens  of  French  literature. — Died  1662. 

Mademoiselle  de  Scudery,  a  writer  of  romances,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  are  Le  Grand  Cyrus,  and  Clelie,  each  in  10  vols. 
They  were  once  very  popular,  but  are  now  almost  forgotten* 
Died  in  1701,  aged  94. 


CrcBSUs,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth.— See   page   234. 


^~^^I^^7".;,;ir"u^nl^   in    i437>   by   John   Guttenberg.-See   page   305 


to 

a 

o 
H 

a 

a 

c 
o 

to 

a 
2 

o 

J3 

H 


CONTINENTAL  LITERA  TURE. 


127 


Madame  de  Sevigne,  celebrated  for  her  epistolary  talents; 
her  letters,  written  mostly  to  her  daughter,  are  esteemed 
models  of  simplicity,  liveliness,  and  elegance  of  expression  ; 
they  consist  of  several  volumes.  She  held  a  high  place  in  the 
literary  circles  of  Paris. —  Died  1696. 

Pierre  Corneille,  the  creator  of  French  tragedy;  his  dramas 
are  highly  esteemed  for  their  declamatory  grandeur  by  his 
countrymen,  by  whom  he  is  called  "  Le  grand  Corneille." — 
Died  1684. 

Jean  Baptiste  Moliere— the  name  Moliere  being  assumed  in 
place  of  Poquelin.  Moliere  was  the  creator  of  French  com- 
edy, and  takes  the  highest  rank  as  a  writer  of  humorous  and 
-satirical  plays. — Died  1673. 

Jean  Racine,  a  dramatist,  contemporary  with  Corneille  and 
Moliere ;  the  subjects  of  his  plays  are  chiefly  taken  from  clas- 
sical and  Scriptural  sources. — Died  1697. 

Brueys,  a  theological  writer  and  comic  dramatist,  but  re- 
membered only  as  the  writer  of  a  modernized  version  of  an 
old  play,  in  which  in  a  droll  litigation  about  sheep,  occurs  the 
phrase,  "  revenons  h  nos  moutons"  (let  us  return  to  our  sheep, 
Dx  proper  subject  in  hand) — a  phrase  now  often  quoted  in  a 
jocular  sense.     The  name  of  this  play  is  L'Avocat  Patelin. 

Lafontaine,  a  poet  and  fabulist,  whose  fables  in  verse  will 
ever  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  French  literature. — Died  1695. 

Boileau,  the  most  famous  of  the  French  satirical  poets; 
his  principal  works  are  his  Satires,  his  EpUres,  and  his  Art 
Po^tique,  a  performance  of  high  finish. — Died  171 1. 

Bossuet,  Bourdaloue,  and  Massillon,  three  pulpit  orators, 
distinguished  for  their  fervid  and  persuasive  eloquence. 
Bossuet,  who  died  1704,  and  Massillon,  who  died  1742,  have 
left  sermons  which  are  probably  not  surpassed  in  splendor 
and  grace  of  rhetoric  by  any  similar  compositions. 

Rochefoucauld,  a  nobleman,  author  of  Maximes  Morales, 
noted  for  their  searching  and  severe  exposition  of  the  motives 
of  human  conduct. — Died  1680. 

Bruyere,  or  Labruyere,  celebrated  for  works  on  character 
and  manners. — Died  1696. 


Sound 


Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49- 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Bom  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821 — See  page  411. 


S 


128  CONTINENTAL  LITERATURE. 

Bayle,  a  philosophical  writer,  who  in  his  Dictionnaire  His* 
tort'que  et  Critique,  has  shown  all  the  qualities  of  his  remarkn 
able  mind — wit,  logic,  learning,  and  scepticism. — Died  1706. 

Vauban,  a  marshal  of  France  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV., 
and  famous  for  his  system  of  fortifying  towns,  on  which  sub- 
ject he  left  several  works  at  his  death  in  1707. 

Malebranche,  a  writer  on  philosophical  subjects  ;  his  most 
famous  work  is  his  Recherche  de  la  V&it^. — Died  171 5. 

Fenelon,  Archbishop  of  Cambray,  an  eminent  writer  of 
works  of  a  philosophical  and  religious  nature,  but  best  known 
as  the  author  of  a  classic  romance,  Telemaque,  prepared  for 
the  special  use  of  his  pupil,  a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  the 
young  Duke  of  Burgundy,  who  died  17 14.  Fenelon  died 
1715. 

Fontenelle,  author  of  numerous  poetical,  oratorical,  dramatic, 
philosophical,  and  scientific  writings.  He  possessed  a  fine 
temper  and  gentle  disposition,  and  died  when  he  had  nearly 
finished  his  looth  year,  1757. 

II.  The  following  were  the  distinguished  writers  of  the 
1 8th  century — 

Rollin,  a  historian,  whose  writings  though  refined  in  style 
are  diffuse  and  uncritical. — Died  1741. 

Lesage,  poet,  dramatist,  and  novelist,  famed  as  the  author 
of  Gil  Bias. — Died  1747. 

Baron  de  Montesquieu,  a  celebrated  author  and  political 
philosopher ;  his  great  work,  which  occupied  him  20  years, 
was  L Esprit  des  Lois  (The  Spirit  of  Laws),  often  quoted  on 
questions  of  civil  liberty. — Died  1755. 

Voltaire— properly,  Francis  Marie  Arouet  de  Voltaire— the 
most  voluminous  and  distinguished  of  all  the  French  writers 
—poet,  dramatist,  historian,  and  philosopher.  By  his  subtle 
and  sarcastic  genius  Voltaire  exercised  a  prodigious  influence 
over  his  countrymen,  and  powerfully  aided  in  bringing  on 
the  Revolution.— Died  1778. 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  dramatist,  novelist,  and  writer  on 
speculative  subjects,  but  extravagant  in  his  theories,  and  in. 


"Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344.— See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients — See    page    ii8. 


CONTINENTAL   LITERATURE 


I2g 


tractable ;  though  classed  with  French  writers,  he  was  a  na- 
tive  of  Geneva. — Died  1778. 

The  Count  de  Buffon,  naturaHst ;  Marmontel,  novelist ;  La 
Harpe,  literary  biographer  and  critic ;  Raynal,  historian  ;  Hel- 
vetius,  writer  on  philosophical  subjects  ;  D'Alembert  and  Con- 
dorcet,  mathematicians ;  Lavoisier,  chemist ;  Diderot,  m.ora- 
list  and  romance  writer;  and  St.  Pierre,  author  ot  Paul  et 
Vzrginie  ;  rank  among  the  leading  men  of  science  and  letters 
in  France,  in  the  latter  part  oi  tne  ibth  century. 

12.  In  the  present  century,  France  has  had  the  following 
authors  of  note — 

Baroness  de  Stael-Holstein,  ordinarily  called  Madame  de 
Stael,  was  daughter  of  Necker,  the  famous  financier,  and  be- 
came celebrated  for  her  novels  and  other  productions ;  her 
best-known  work  is  Corinne,  ou  i'ltalie  (Corinne,  or  Italy.) — 
Died  1817. 

Laplace,  a  celebrated  astronomer,  author  of  the  Mdcanique 
Cdeste  and  Systhme  du  Monde,  works  of  the  highest  value  to 
science. — Died  1827. 

Laurent  de  Jussieu,  born  at  Lyons,  1748,  Professor  of  Botany 
in  Paris,  whose  fame  rests  on  his  system  of  plants,  known  as 
the  Jussieuan  or  Natural  System,  which  is  now  generally 
adopted.  The  work  in  which  his  views  are  set  forth  is  en- 
titled Genera  Plantarum. — Died  1836. 

Decandolle,  native  of  Geneva,  follower  of  Jussieu,  whose 
system  of  botany  he  improved,  and  author  of  several  import' 
ant  works  on  the  vegetable  kingdom. — Died  1841. 

Vicomte  de  Chateaubriand,  a  writer  on  political  and  specu- 
lative subjects;  his  works  are  of  a  pious  and  imaginative  kind, 
but  want  solidity. — Died  1848. 

Beranger,  a  poet,  celebrated  for  his  lyrical  and  patriotic 
songs. — Died  1857.  Jasmin  was  a  contemporary  poet  in  hum- 
ble life,  who  wrote  in  the  patois  of  the  south  of  France. 

Michelet,  born  1798,  a  brilliant  historian,  and  author  of  sev- 
eral polemical  novels. — Pied  1874. 

Lamennais,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  politico-re* 
ligious  writers  in  the  present  century. — Died  1854. 


The   Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503-— See  page  181. 


130  CONTINENTAL  LITERATURE, 

Sismondi,  a  native  of  Geneva,  but  of  Italian  descent,  who 
finally  resided  in  France;  he  wrote  on  political  economy,  in 
which  he  adopted  the  advanced  views  of  Adam  Smith  ;  his 
greatest  works,  however,  are  the  Histories  of  Italy  and  France, 
which  are  voluminous,  and  greatly  appreciated. — Died  1842. 

Victor  Cousin,  born  1792,  an  eminent  writer  on  philosophi- 
cal subjects  and  on  education ;  his  works  are  very  numer- 
ous.—Died  1867. 

Guizot,  born  1787,  a  writer  of  historical  and  political  trea- 
tises, and  a  statesman  of  note  in  the  reign  of  Louis-Philippe. 
-Died  1874. 

Thiers,  born  1797,  writer  of  the  History  of  the  French  Re- 
volution in  several  volumes,  and  an  eloquent  speaker,  but 
unsound  and  unpractical  in  his  notions  of  public  policy. 

De  Tocqueville,  an  eminent  writer  on  politics  and  the  phil- 
osophy of  history. — Died  1859. 

Lamartine,  a  lyrical  and  descriptive  poet,  born  1792,  died 
1869;  Victor  Hugo,  poet  and  novelist,  born  1802;  Balzac, 
novelist ;  Paul  de  Kock,  novelist ;  Eugene  Sue,  novelist ;  and 
Madame  Dudevant,  who  calls  herself  George  Sand,  born 
1804,  are  the  principal  writers  of  fiction  in  recent  times. 

Jean  Henri  Merle,  who,  for  family  reasons,  assumed  the 
name  D'Aubigne,  born  at  Geneva,  1794,  but  classed  as  a 
French  writer ;  his  well-known  work  is  a  Histoire  de  la  Refor- 
jitaiwn,  which  has  been  translated  into  English. — Died  1872. 

Auguste  Comte,  an  ingenious  writer  on  mental  philosophy, 
and  founder  of  the  system  of  speculation  known  as  "  Positiv- 
ism."—Died  1857. 

13.  What  zs  Positivism? — It  is  a  philosophical  system 
whic'i  rejects  theology  and  metaphysics  as  fruitless  specula- 
tions on  things  beyond  the  lange  of  the  human  faculties,  and 
confines  itself  to  deducing  the  laws  of  positively  ascertained 

phenomena. 

Germany. 

14.  Is  German  literature  of  ancient  date? — There  were  many 
popular  poems  and  other  inartistic  productions  of  an  early 
period,  but  the  classical  German  literature  begins  as  late  as 


4) 

H 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was   the   Food    of  the   Gods — See  page   248. 


CONTINENTAL  LITERATURE.  131 

the  1 8th  century,  with  the  writings  of  Klopstock,  Goethe,  and 
Schiller. 

15.  What  was  the  Nibelung en-lied? — It  was  a  series  of  old 
ballads  united  so  as  to  make  one  plot,  of  a  heroic  kind.  Nibel^ 
ungen  was  the  name  of  an  ancient  royal  race,  and  lied  signi- 
fies a  song.  The  Nibelungen-lied  was  sung  by  the  minne- 
singers— troubadours  of  Germany. 

16.  Have  there  been  many  German  writers? — Yes  ;  although 
the  literature  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  there  has  been 
a  great  abundance  of  writers,  the  sale  of  whose  works  forms 
U  staple  trade  at  Leipsic. 

17.  The  following  are  the  most  noted  writers  and  philoso- 
phers of  Germany — 

Nicolas  Copernicus  —  originally  Copemik  —  a  native  of 
Prussia,  eminent  for  his  mathematical  and  astronomical  knowl- 
edge. The  system  of  astronomy  which  goes  by  his  name  is, 
however,  not  exclusively  his ;  it  is  more  the  work  of  Kepler, 
Galileo,  and  Newton ;  but  in  his  De  Revolutionibus  Orbium^ 
Copernicus  argues  for  the  sun  being  the  centre  of  the  plane- 
tary system ;  from  which  circumstance  he  is  usually  called 
the  originator  of  the  present  system  of  astronomy — Died 
^543. 

Tycho  Brahe,  a  native  of  Denmark,  much  of  whose  life  was 
6pent  in  Germany ;  he  succeeded  Copernicus  as  an  astron- 
omical discoverer,  and  added  greatly  to  the  general  knowledge 
of  the  planets  and  stars. — Died  1601. 

Kepler,  a  native  of  Wurtemberg,  who  for  some  time  acted 
as  assistant  to  Tycho  Brahe ;  his  fame  rests  on  his  discovery 
of  certain  laws  of  light  and  of  planetary  motion,  known  as 
"  Kepler's  Laws." — Died  1630. 

Puffendorf,  native  of  Saxony,  a  celebrated  jurist  or  writer 
on  legal  institutes.  He  was  successively  a  professor  at  Hei- 
delberg in  Germany,  and  Lunden  in  Sweden,  at  which  latter 
place  he  wrote  his  famed  work,  De  Jure  Naturce  et  Gentium 
(The  Laws  of  Nature  and  of  Nations),  which  remains  an  au- 
thority on  the  subject. — Died  1694. 

Leibnitz,  a  native  of  Leipsic,  celebrated  for  his  erudition 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70.— See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


132  CONTINENTAL  LITERATURE. 

and  philosophical  researches ;  he  wrote  numerous  works  on 
natural  theology,  the  human  mind,  and  the  moral  government 
of  the  world. — Died  1716. 

Karl  Linne,  best  known  by  his  Latinized  name,  Linnaeus,  a 
native  of  Sweden,  who  attained  to  great  celebrity  as  a  natur- 
alist, especially  for  his  discoveries  in  botany,  and  classifica- 
tion of  plants  known  as  the  Linncean  or  Artificial  System, — 
Died  1778. 

Mosheim,  a  native  of  Lubeck,  author  of  an  ecclesiastical 
History  in  Latin ;  also  of  works  which  contributed  to  the  for- 
mation of  a  pure  style  of  prose  German  composition. — Died 
1755- 

Lessing,  a  native  of  Saxony,  dramatist  and  literary  critic, 
who  helped  to  emancipate  German  literature  from  corrupted 
French  influences. — Died  1781. 

Lavater,  a  native  of  Zurich,  Switzerland,  whose  great  work 
is  a  treatise  on  Physiognomy,  or  a  method  of  determining 
character  by  the  countenance.  He  was  shot  in  the  streets  of 
Zurich  when  the  French,  under  Massena,  captured  the  city  in 
1799;  but  he  lingered  on  till  1801. 

Immanuel  Kant,  born  at  Konigsberg,  but  of  Scotch  descent, 
became  a  professor  in  the  university  of  his  native  city,  ^nd 
wrote  various  treatises  on  Reason  and  Ethics.  In  these  are 
embraced  the  "Kantian  Philosophy,"  or  "transcendentalism," 
signifying  that  which  transcends  or  goes  beyond  the  limits  of 
experience. — Died  1804. 

Goethe,  poet,  dramatist,  and  novelist,  the  greatest  of  the 
German  writers,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maine,  1749;  his 
most  famed  production  is  Faust,  a  dramatic  poem,  of  which 
there  have  been  several  translations. — Died  1832. 

Klopstock,  eminent  as  a  German  poet ;  his  writings  are 
chiefly  lyrical  and  dramatic,  but  he  is  best  known  in  England 
as  author  of  the  Messiah,  a  religious  epic  of  a  high  order. — Died 
1803. 

Schiller,  born  in  Wurtemberg,  1759,  poet,  dramatist,  and 
historian ;  his  fame  mainly  rests  on  his  tragedies  of  the  Rob' 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


CONTINENTAL  LITERATURE.  133 

bers,  Walienstein,  Tell,  and  Marie  Stuart,  and  on  his  splendid 
lyrics. — Died  1805. 

Kotzebue,  a  prolific  German  dramatist,  one  of  whose  plays, 
under  the  name  of  The  Stranger,  is  known  in  England.  He 
was  assassinated  at  Mannheim,  1819,  on  account  of  his  hostility 
to  the  liberal  movement. 

The  two  Humboldts,  brothers,  natives  of  Prussia— Karl 
Wilhelm,  the  elder,  famed  for  his  philological  treatises ;  died 
1835.  Alexander,  one  of  the  greatest  of  naturalists  and  geo- 
graphers ;  his  latest  and  best-known  work  is  Cosmos,  a  dis- 
quisition on  the  physical  structure  of  the  universe. — Died 
1859. 

August  Wilhelm  von  Schlegel,  native  of  Hanover,  lyrical 
poet,  and  writer  of  various  works  connected  with  literary 
criticism.  He  had  a  good  knowledge  of  English,  and  trans- 
lated Shakspeare  into  German. — Died  1845. 

Dr.  Franz  Joseph  Gall,  a  native  of  Suabia,  who  studied 
medicine  at  Vienna,  and  there  became  the  founder  of  phren- 
ology;  died  1828.  Spurzheim,  educated  at  Treves,  associated 
himself  with  Gall,  and  became  the  popular  expounder  of  the 
phrenological  system,  which  he  considerably  extended. — Died 
1832. 

Niebuhr,  born  at  Copenhagen,  1776,  mastered  20  languages 
before  he  was  aged  thirty.  He  wrote  several  historical  and 
philological  works;  his  best-known  production  is  Rdmische 
Geschichte  (History  of  Rome). — Died  1831. 

Neander — originally  David  Mendel — was  born  of  Jewish 
parents  at  Gottingen,  1789,  and  adopted  the  name  Neander 
on  being  baptized.  He  is  allowed  to  be  by  far  the  greatest 
of  ecclesiastical  historians  ;  his  best-known  work  in  his  Kir- 
chengeschichte  (Church  History),  which  shows  extraordinary 
erudition. — Died  1850. 

Baron  Liebig,  born  at  Darmstadt,  1803,  one  of  the  greatest 
chemists  of  recent  times,  at  one  time  Professor  of  Chemistry 
at  the  University  of  Giessen,  in  Hesse,  and  afterwards  at 
Munich.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  and  well-known 
works  on  chemical  science,  written  chiefly  to  improve  agricul- 
ture and  sanitary  knowledge. — Died  1873. 

6  A 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian   Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


T34  CONTINENTAL  LITERATURE, 

German  literature  has  latterly  been  enriched  by  the  writ* 
ings  of  Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel — philosophy ;  Reinhard, 
Paulus,  Schleiermacher,  and  Strauss — biblical  criticism ;  Wolf, 
Hermann,  Muller,  the  two  brothers  Grimm,  Bopp,  Benecke, 
Adelung,  Lassen,  Rosen,  Lepsius,  Herder,  and  Bunsen^ 
philology  and  critical  research;  Winckelman,  Heeren,  Ranke, 
Von  Raumer,  and  Mommsen — archaeology  and  history ;  and 
Korner,  Uhland,  Heine,  Ruckert,  and  Freiligrath — poetry. 

In  prose-fiction,  Germany  has  the  productions  of  Richter, 
Tieck,  Hoffman,  Arnim,  Zschokke,  Therese  Huber,  Wagner, 
Moser,  Stilling,  Goethe,  and  Freytag;  few  German  novels, 
however,  have  been  relished  by  English  readers,  to  whom  the 
general  strain  of  German  sentiment  appears  to  be  unintelli- 
gible. 

18.  What  is  the  general  character  of  German  literature  in  the 
f resent  day? — It  is  much  less  occupied  with  philosophical  sys- 
tems and  metaphysical  speculations  than  formerly.  Numer- 
ous works  are  now  produced  on  different  branches  of  physi- 
cal science,  also  on  historical  and  antiquarian  subjects. 

The  Netherlands,  Etc. 

19.  What  is  the  language  of  the  Netherlands? — It  is  the 
Dutch,  a  branch  of  the  great  Teutonic  stock,  to  which  belongs 
the  Modern  German, 

20.  Is  Dutch  literature  of  ancient  date?—'^o  ;  until  compara- 
tively late  times,  the  learned  men  of  the  Netherlands  wrote 
in  Latin,  and  generally  Latinized  their  names  ;  recently,  there 
have  been  a  number  of  writers  in  Dutch,  but  their  works  are 
little  known  beyond  their  own  country. 

21.  The  following  are  the  more  noted  of  the  learned  men 
of  the  Netherlands — 

Desiderius  Erasmus— originally  called  Gheraerd— a  native 
of  Rotterdam,  one  of  the  most  vigorous  promoters  of  the 
Reformation,  and  writer  of  various  philological  and  theologi- 
cal works. — Died  1536. 

Arminius— originally  James  Hermann— born  1560,  studied 
theology,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Arminians, 
Whose  doctrines  concerning  the  decrees  of  God  and  divine 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793     to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo  was    Fought    June    18,    1815. — See   page    368. 


CONTINENTAL  LITERA  TURE. 


135 


grace  are  opposed  to  those  of  Calvin,  and  have  extensively 
prevailed  in  the  Church  of  England. — Died  1609. 

Hugo  Grotius — originally  De  Groot — a  native  of  Delft, 
author  of  various  political,  theological,  and  historical  treatises, 
likewise  of  poems  in  Latin  verse  ;  his  great  work  was  De  Jure 
Belli  et  Pads  (The  Laws  of  War  and  Peace),  which  has  been 
translated  into  various  languages,  and  remains  an  authority 
on  the  subject. — Died  1645. 

Spinoza,  a  native  of  Amsterdam,  of  Jewish  descent,  who 
spent  much  of  his  life  as  a  meditative  recluse  at  the  Hague, 
where  he  wrote  several  works  on  ethics  and  philosophy. 
Spinoza's  views  are  usually  called  atheistic  ;  strictly,  they 
were  pantheistic,  and  have  never  received  any  practical  ac- 
ceptance.— Died  1677. 

Leuwenhoek,  a  native  of  Delft,  where  he  spent  his  life  in 
constructing  microscopes,  and  in  making  discoveries  in  animal 
physiology  by  means  of  these  instruments.  When  Peter  the 
Great  passed  through  the  Netherlands,  he  visited  Leuwen- 
hoek, who,  by  a  microscope,  showed  him  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  in  the  tail  of  an  eel. — Died  1723. 

Boerhaave,  born  near  Leyden,  1668,  became  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  physicians  and  anatomists  of  the  i8th  century;  to 
his  lectures  at  the  University  of  Leyden  pupils  flocked  from 
all  parts  of  the  civilized  world. — Died  1738. 

The  list  of  modern  Dutch  writers  in  miscellaneous  litera- 
ture and  poetry,  includes  Hooft,  Vondel,  Cats,  Van  der  Palm, 
Van  Lennep,  Bilderdyke,  andDa  Costa. 


22.  Who  was  Karamsin  ? — He  was  the  most  eminent  prose 
writer  that  Russia  has  produced;  born  1766;  his  great  work 
is  a  History  of  the  Russian  Empire,  v^niten  in  the  Russian  lan- 
guage, and  highly  esteemed. — Died  1826. 

23.  Who  was  Pushkin? — He  was  the  most  distinguished 
poet  of  Russia,  born  1796;  he  wrote  several  narrative  poems 
and  dramas  in  the  Russian  language,  and  has  been  sometimes 
called  the  Russian  Byron. — Died  1837. 

24.  What  is  the  literature  of  the  Magyars  ? — It  is  the  litera- 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


136 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


ture  of  Hungary,  composed  in  the  Magyar  language,  which 
bears  a  resemblance  to  the  Turkish.  Specimens  of  Magyar 
poetry  have  been  translated  into  English  by  Sir  John  Bow- 
ring. 

25.  Who  was  Oehlenschldger  ? — He  was  a  celebrated  Scandi- 
navian poet  and  dramatist,  born  near  Copenhagen,  1779.  His 
works,  which  are  highly  appreciated  in  Denmark  and  Ger- 
many, extend  to  41  volumes.— Died  1850. 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

1.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  English  language? — It  is  a 
composition  of  Anglo-Saxon,  French,  and  Latin,  with  words 
from  various  other  languages. 

2.  How  nia7iy  words  are  there  in  the  English  language  ? — 
There  are  upwards  of  42,000,  of  which  13,000  are  Anglo-Saxon, 
and  29,000  French  and  Latin — the  Latin  being  imported 
chiefly  through  the  French. 

3.  What  words  are  employed  in  speaking? — In  ordinary  con- 
versation, Anglo-Saxon  words  are  almost  exclusively  used ; 
uneducated  persons  employ  only  a  limited  stock  of  words 
— seldom  more  than  a  few  thousand. 

4.  What  words  are  employed  in  literature  ?—SomQ  writers 
employ  more  Anglo-Saxon  words  than  any  others.  Examples 
of  simple  and  nervous  Anglo-Saxon  are  found  in  the  works 
of  Bunyan,  and  in  the  authorized  version  of  the  Bible. 

5.  What  writers  are  noted  for  the  prof  use  use  of  words  from 
the  Latin? — Addison,  Samuel  Johnson,  Gibbon,  and  some 
others  in  the  i8th  century. 

6.  Give  one  or  two  examples  of  words  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
and  Latin  having  the  same  meaning. — "Assemble"  is  from 
the  Latin  ;  "  meet  together,"  from  the  Anglo-Saxon.  "  Ex- 
claim" is  from  the  Latin  ;  "  cry  out,"  from  the  Anglo-Saxon. 
"Ultimate"  is  from  the  Latin ;  "  the  last,"  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon.  In  each  of  these  examples  the  meaning  is  the 
lame. 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE,  137 

7.  In  what  works  is  derivation  of  words  made  the  subject  oj 
study? — In  treatises  on  Philology  and  Etymology;  derivations 
are  also  found  in  etymological  dictionaries. 

8.  What  is  the  effect  of  using  words  from  the  Latin  ? — The 
effect  is  to  give  variety  and  a  certain  dignity  to  sentences  ; 
but  when  used  profusely,  the  composition  becomes  pompous, 
and  scarcely  intelligible  to  ordinary  readers. 

9.  What  is  noTcv  the  plan  followed  by  good  writers  ? — It  is  to 
make  no  particular  choice  of  words,  but  to  use  such,  what- 
ever be  their  origin,  as  are  best  suited  to  express  their 
ideas. 

10.  When  does  English  literature  commence? — It  properly 
begins  with  the  works  of  Chaucer  and  Gower  in  the  14th 
century  when  the  language  had  settled  into  its  present  com- 
posite form,  although  still  uncouth  in  its  orthography,  and 
in  some  of  its  expressions.     Spenser  says  of  Chaucer — 

*'  Dan  Chaucer,  well  of  English  undefyled 
Marly  English  Writers. 

11.  Who  was  Chaucer? — Geoffrey  Chaucer  was  the  earliest 
English  poet ;  he  was  born  in  London,  1328,  and  was  employed 
at  the  court  of  Edward  III. ;  as  an  ambassador  to  Genoa,  he 
v^isited  Petrarch,  with  whom  he  had  congenial  literary  tastes; 
late  in  life  he  wrote  his  Canterbury  Tales,  which  are  an  en- 
during monument  of  his  genius. — Died  1400. 

12.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  Canterbury  Tales  ?— They  are 
in  verse,  purporting  to  be  related  for  mutual  amusement  by 
a  party  of  equestrian  pilgrims  from  the  Tabard  Inn,  South- 
wark,  to  Canterbury.  These  tales  are  now  little  read  on  ac- 
count of  a  number  of  the  words  being  obsolete,  or  in  an  old 
orthography;  but  their  merit  places  Chaucer  in  the  first 
rank  of  English  poets. 

13.  Who  was  Gower? — John  Gower,  a  contemporary  of 
Chaucer,  was  an  English  gentleman  of  property,  who  wrote 
several  poems,  some  in  Latin,  some  in  English;  those  in  English 
are  admired  for  their  lively  expression  of  natural  feeling 
—Died  1408. 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278, 


138  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

14.  Who  was  Sir  John  Mandeville? — He  is  usually  reckoned 
the  first  English  prose  writer ;  about  1356  he  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  his  travels  in  foreign  countries,  a  work  consisting 
of  a  curious  mixture  of  truth  and  fable,  and  valuable  as  a 
specimen  of  English  prose   composition  in  the   14th  century. 

15.  Who  was  John  Wickliffe? — He  was  a  learned  ecclesi- 
astic (born  1324,  died  1384),  who  executed  a  translation  of 
the  Scriptures  from  the  Latin,  which  remains  one  of  the 
valuable  relics  of  the  English  language  in  the   14th  century. 

16.  Who  was  Richard  of  Cirencester? — He  was  a  monkish 
chronicler  of  the  14th  century,  famed  for  his  history  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  and  a  description  of  Britain  in  Latin,  entitled 
De  Situ  Briia?inice ;  a  manuscript  of  this  last  work  was  dis- 
covered at  Copenhagen  in  1747,  and  has  been  translated  and 
published  in  England.     Richard  died  about  1401. 

17.  What  projnoted  literature  in  the  \^th  century? — The  dis- 
covery of  the  art  of  printing,  which  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land by  William  Caxton  about  147 1. 

1 8.  What  was  the  first  book  printed  in  Britain  ? — It  was  The 
Game  of  Chess,  printed  by  Caxton,  1474 ;  Caxton  translated  or 
wrote  about  sixty  different  books,  all  of  which  went  through 
his  own  press  before  his  death  in  1491. 

19.  Mention  other  early  writers  of  note. — Henry  Howard,  eldest 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  and  usually  called  Earl  of  Surrey, 
was  the  first  of  the  distinguished  poets  in  England  after 
Chaucer  and  Gower;  his  poems  are  chiefly  lyrical,  and  are 
refined  in  style.  Surrey  was  a  gallant  soldier,  and  conducted 
an  important  expedition  into  Scotland,  1542.  Falling  under 
the  displeasure  of  Henry  VHL,  he  was  beheaded,  1547. 

Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  lyrical  poet,  a  contemporary  of  Surrey 
at  the  court  of  Henry  VUL,  remarkable  for  the  tenderness  of 
his  songs  and  sonnets. — Died  1541. 

Sir  Thomas  More,  the  pious  and  learned  chancellor  of  Henry 
VHL,  by  whom  he  was  barbarously  condemned  and  beheaded, 
1535,  wrote  several  works  in  Latin  and  English;  his  best 
known  production  is  a  curious  philosophical  work  in  Latin, 
under  the  title  of  Utopia,  descriptive  of  an  imaginary  country. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the   Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See  page    133. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


39 


where  everything  is  perfect.  From  this  work  comes  the  term 
'•  Utopian,"  signifying  that  which  is  chimerical  or  impractic- 
able. 

John  Leland,  the  first  English  antiquarian  writer,  died 
1552;  and  Roger  Ascham,  a  writer  of  educational  and  other 
treatises,  who  assisted  Queen  Elizabeth  in  her  classical  studies ; 
died  1 568.  These  were  two  learned  men  of  note  in  England 
at  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century. 

Early  Scottish  Writers. 

20.  What  language  was  employed  by  the  early  Scottish  writers  ? 
—Some  wrote  in  Latin ;  others  wrote  in  the  Scottish  verna- 
cular of  the  period,  which  bore  a  resemblance  to  the  English 
of  Chaucer,  and  which,  with  some  modifications,  now  consti- 
tutes what  is  called  the  Scottish  dialect. 

21.  Mention  the  more  remarkable  Scottish  writers  previous  to 
the  reign  of  James  VI. — 

Sir  Michael  Scott  of  Balwearie,  distinguished  for  his  learn- 
ing and  knowledge  of  the  occult  sciences  ;  among  the  ignor- 
ant, he  was  reputed  to  be  a  magician,  and  there  are  numer- 
ous mythic  legends  concerning  his  marvellous  performances. 
He  wrote  several  scientific  treatises  in  Latin. — Died  1291. 

John  of  Fordoun  wrote  in  Latin  a  work,  styled  the  Scoti- 
chronicon,  purporting  to  be  a  history  of  Scotland  from  the 
beginning  of  the  world ;  it  brought  the  history  down  to  the 
death  of  David  L,  in  11 53.  Fordoun  died  about  1385.  His 
work  was  afterwards  extended  to  1437,  by  Walter  Bower,  abbot 
of  Inchcoln^. 

John  Barbour,  archdeacon  of  Aberdeen  in  1357,  is  reckoned 
the  earliest  Scottish  poet.  Some  of  his  poems  are  lost;  that 
which  remains  is  The  Bruce,  a  versified  history  of  the  trans- 
actions by  which  the  family  of  Robert  Bruce  obtained  the 
Scottish  crown. — Died  1395. 

Andrew  Wyntoun,  prior  of  the  monastery  of  St.^erf,  Loch- 
leven,  about  1420,  completed  his  Orygynale  Cronykil of  Scotland, 
a  historical  narrative  in  verse. 

James  L  of  Scotland,  an  accomplished  prince,  educated  in 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65. 


140  ENGLISH  LITER  A  TURE. 

England,  wrote  some  elegant  poetry ;  his  best  known  work 
is  The  Kings  Quhair  (Quire  or  Book),  which  contains  poetry 
equal  to  that  of  any  of  his  English  contemporaries.  This 
royal  poet  was  barbarously  assassinated,  1437. 

Blind  Harry  is  the  name  given  to  a  wandering  poet,  blind 
from  his  infancy,  who  recited  The  Adventures  oj  Sir  William 
Wallace  in  verse,  which,  in  a  modernized  form,  remains  a 
popular  favorite.     Blind  Harry  flourished  about  1460. 

William  Dunbar  occupies  a  high  rank  among  Scottish 
poets  ;  his  poems,  allegorical,  moral,  and  comic,  were  com- 
posed about  1491  ;  they  are  still  highly  relished,  and  would  be 
more  so  but  for  their  antiquated  orthography. — Died  about 
1520. 

Gavin  Douglas  was  a  younger  son  of  Archibald,  fifth  Earl 
of  Angus,  and  became  bishop  of  Dunkeld;  about  1500  he 
wrote  several  poems,  the  longest  of  which  is  The  Palace  of 
Honor ;  he  also  produced  a  Scottish  metrical  version  of 
Virgil's  ^neid. — Died  1521.  Scott  says  of  him  in  Marmion — 

"  He  gave  rude  Scotland  Virgil's  page." 

Sir  David  Lyndsay,  born  about  1490,  was  at  first  a  compan- 
ion of  James  V.when  a  boy,  and  afterwards  filled  the  office  of 
Lord  Lyon  King-at-arms ;  Lyndsay  wrote  some  remarkable 
poems,  chiefly  satiric  and  humorous,  which  contributed  to 
bring  about  the  Reformation  in  Scotland. — Died  about  1555. 

James  V.  of  Scotland  is  reputed  to  have  written  some 
humorous  but  somewhat  coarse  songs  and  ballads. — Died 
1542. 

George  Buchanan,  born  1506,  was  eminent  for  his  scholar- 
ship, and  his  exertions  in  favor  of  the  Reformation ;  except- 
ing two  pieces,  he  wrote  in  Latin,  into  which  language  he 
translated  the  Psalms  of  David.  Buchanan  became  princi- 
pal of  St.  Leonard's  College,  St.  Andrews,  1566,  and  after- 
wards acted  as  tutor  to  James  VL;  his  greatest  work  is  a  His- 
tory of  Scotland,  in  Latin,  which  has  been  translated  into 
English. — Died  1582. 

John  Knox,  the  Scottish  Reformer,  who  died  in  1572,  and 
was  characterized  by  the  Earl  of  Morton  as  "  one  who  nevef 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles. — See  page  47. 


ENGLISH  LITER  A  TURE. 


141 


feared  the  face  of  man,"  wrote  several  theological  works ;  but 
his  chief  production  was  a  History  of  the  Reformation  of  Religion 
within  the  realm  of  Scotland. 

Alexander  Montgomery,  a  poet  who  wrote  about  1568  ;  his 
principal  work  is  The  Cherry  and  the  Slae  (sloe),  a  rural  alle^ 
gory  abounding  in  beautiful  imagery. 

James  VI.  of  Scotland,  who  became  James  I.  of  England, 
was  a  voluminous  author  ;  his  works  most  frequently  referred 
to  are  Basilicon  Doron  (Royal  Gift),  or  Instructions  concern- 
ing Government  to  his  son  Henry  ;  DcE7nonolgie,  a  dialogue  on 
witchcraft ;  and  A  Counterblast  to  Tobacco,  written  for  the 
purpose  of  bringing  tobacco-smoking  into  disrepute. — Died 
1625. 

John  Napier,  of  Merchiston,  born  1550,  attained  to  lasting 
fame  by  his  discovery  of  Logarithms — a  short  method  of 
calculation,  valuable  in  many  mathematical  operations,  de- 
scribed by  him  in  a  treatise  on  the  subject. — Died  161 7. 

John  Spottiswood  (1565 — 1639),  successively  Archbishop  of 
Glasgow  and  St.  Andrews  in  the  reign  of  James  VI.,  was  author 
of  a  History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  which  is  considered  to 
be,  on  the  whole,  a  faithful  and  impartial  narrative. 

William  Drummond  (1585 — 1649)  was  a  P^et  in  Scotland, 
contemporary  with  Ben  Jonson,  who  visited  him  at  his  seat  of 
Hawthornden,  in  the  vicinity  of  Roslin.  Drummond's  poems 
consist  of  madrigals,  epigrams,  sonnets,  and  other  pieces,  dis- 
tinguished by  a  play  of  fancy  and  harmony  of  versification. 

The  Era  of  Elizabeth,  James  I.,  Charles  I.— 1553  to  1649. 

22.  What  change  took  place  in  English  literature  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  ? — It  became  more  truly  national,  and  acquired  a 
vigor  and  elegance  far  beyond  what  it  had  hitherto  pos- 
sessed ;  poetry  and  the  drama,  in  particular,  rose  to  a  high 
degree  of  excellence. 

23,  To  what  was  the  change  imputed? — To  the  outburst  of 
free  opinion  consequent  on  the  Reformation,  also  to  the  favor 
shown  to  literature  and  men  of  genius  by  Queen  Elizabeth, 
which  favor  was  continued  by  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  with 
the  view  of  counteracting  Puritanism. 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


142  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

24.  Mention  the  principal  poets  and  dramatists  in  this  era.—^ 

Thomas  Sackville,  Earl  of  Dorset  (1536— 1608),  writer  of  a 
poem  entitled  The  Mirror  for  Magistrates,  remarkable  for  its 
vigor  of  allegorical  description. 

John  Lyly,born  about  1554,  flourished  as  a  dramatist  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  but  is  only  remembered  as  the  writer  of 
two  works,  entitled  Euphues,  or  the  Anatomy  of  Wit,  and  Eu- 
phues  and  his  England.  They  are  written  in  an  affected,  bom- 
bastic style,  and  gave  rise  to  the  term  Euphuism,  a  method  of 
speaking  in  bombastic  and  allegorical  language,  which  was  in 
vogue  at  the  court  of  Elizabeth. 

Sir  Philip  Sidney  (15 54— 1586),  a  most  accomplished  writer 
of  sonnets,  and  called  the  English  Petrarch.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  in  a  battle  in  the  Netherlands,  1586,  and  among 
numerous  elegies  on  his  death  was  a  famed  one  by  Spenser, 
under  the  title  of  Astrophel. 

Christopher  Marlowe  (1565— 1593),  author  of  a  poem,  The 
Passionate  Shepherd  to  his  Love,  beginning — 

"  Come,  live  with  me,  and  be  my  love," 

by  which  he  is  best  remembered ;  but  he  was  also  the  author 
of  a  number  of  dramas  of  merit. 

Edmund  Spenser  (1553 — 1599),  the  most  luxuriant  and  melo- 
dious of  all  our  descriptive  poets;  his  great  work  is  The 
Faery  Queen,  which  presents  a  wondrous  scene  of  enchant- 
ment and  beauty.  Spenser  had  a  large  grant  of  lands  in 
Ireland  from  Queen  Elizabeth,  but,  driven  from  that  country, 
he  died  in  poverty  at  Westminster.  From  him  comes  the 
term  "  Spenserian  stanza"— a  verse  of  eight  lines,  each  of  ten 
syllables,  with  a  concluding  line  in  twelve  syllables  called  an 
Alexandrine. 

Southwell,  Daniel,  Drayton,  Fairfax,  Sir  Henry  Wotton, 
Donne,  and  Joseph  Hall,  are  all  celebrated  for  their  poetry  in 
different  departments,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

Ben  Jonson  (1574 — 1637),  great  as  a  poet  and  dramatist 
Some  of  his  lyrics — for  example,  that  beginning — 

Drink  to  me  only  with  thine  eyes," 


Croesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by  John   Guttenberg. — See   page   305. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


143 


are  exquisitely  beautiful.  Among  his  dramas  are,  Every  Man 
in  his  Humor,  The  Silent  Woman,  The  Fox,  The  Alchemist, 
and  Cynthia's  Revels.  On  his  tomb  in  Westminster  Abbey  is 
inscribed,  "  O  Rare  Ben  Jonson." 

Francis  Beaumont  (1585— 1616)  and  John  Fletcher  (1576— 
1625),  were  two  young  men  of  genius  who  united  their  powers 
in  a  remarkable  manner  to  compose  plays,  of  which  they 
wrote  fifty-two  ;  these  dramas,  tragical  and  comic,  still  keep 
their  place  in  English  literature. 

William  Shakspeare,  born  at  Stratford-on-Avon,  1564,  is 
the  greatest  of  English  poets  and  dramatists— his  works  show- 
ing the  most  extraordinary  versatility  of  fancy,  felicity  of  ex- 
pression, and  knowledge  of  human  character.  He  died  1616, 
and  it  was  only  after  his  decease  that  the  grandeur  of  hie 
genius  was  appreciated.  The  first  edition  of  his  works  was 
published  in  1623. 

Philip  Massinger  (1584— 1640),  a  distinguished  tragic  poet 
and  dramatist  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  ;  his  play,  entitled  A 
New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts,  still  keeps  its  place  in  the  acted 
drama. 

Sir  John  Suckling,  author  of  several  beautiful  small  poems  ; 
Robert  Herrick,  a  writer  of  exquisite  lyrics;  and  Richard 
Lovelace,  a  writer  of  odes  and  sonnets-  -rank  among  the  high- 
class  poets  at  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century, 

25.  Mention  the  more  distinguished  prose  writers  of  this  era.— 
Sir  Philip  Sidney,  already  noted  as  a  poet,  was  an  accom- 
plished prose  writer  ;  his  best  known  work  in  this  department 
was  Arcadia,  a  heroic  romance,  which  was  read  and  admired 
at  the  court  of  Elizabeth  and  her  successor. 

Richard  Hooker  (1553— 1600),  a  learned  theologian,  author 
of  the  Laws  of  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  a  work  which  is  consid- 
ered to  be  a  powerful  vindication  of  the  Church  of  England 
and  of  ecclesiastical  establishments  generally. 

Francis  Lord  Bacon  (i  561— 1626),  chancellor  of  England  in 
the  reign  of  James  L,  a  luminary  of  learning,  and  author  of 
several  philosophical  works ;  his  great  work  is  the  Instaura^ 
tion  of  the  Sciences,  in  which  is  comprehended  the  Novum  Or' 


Sound    Travels   at   the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821 — See  page  411. 


S 


144 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE, 


ganum,  defining  the  proper  method  of  prosiecuting  philoso- 
phical researches.  This  great  statesman  was  convicted  oi 
corrupt  piajtices,  and  besides  being  fined  ;^4o,ooo,  was  for  a 
time  confined  In  the  Tower — an  often-quoted  instance  of  high 
intellect  associated  with  imperfect  moral  principle.  Bacon's 
Essays  are  well  known. 

William  Camden  (1551 — 1623),  2Mthor  oi  Britannia,  2i  cele- 
brated work  in  Latin,  giving  an  account  of  Britain  from  re- 
mote antiquity,  and  of  which,  a  translation  appeared  in  1610; 
it  is  a  valuable  repository  of  antiquarian  and  topographical 
knowledge. 

Robert  Burton  (1576 — 1640),  a  country  clergyman,  author 
of  a  learned  and  curious  work,  The  Anatomy  of  Melancholy, 
which  has  been  frequently  reprinted. 

Thomas  Hobbes  (1588 — 1679),  ordinarily  called  Hobbes  of 
Malmesbury,  a  learned  and  philosophical  writer;  his  chief 
works  are  the  Leiiiathan,  and  a  Treatise  on  Human  Nature, 
both  containing  profound  views,  but  abounding  in  doctrines 
which  have  led  to  much  controversy. 

John  Selden  (1584 — 1654),  a  learned  writer  and  distin- 
guished political  chamcter  ;  his  largest  work  is  a  Treatise  on 
Titles  of  Honor,  but  is  less  known  than  Table-  Talk,  a  collec- 
tion of  his  best  sayings  published  after  his  death. 

Jeremy  Taylor  (1613 — 1667),  an  eminent  divine,  and  author 
of  The  Liberty  of  Prophesying,  Holy  Living,  and  Holy  Dying, 
and  other  theological  and  devotional  works,  which  are  highly 
prized  for  their  learning,  piety,  and  beauty  of  style. 

Sir  Thomas  Browne  (1605— 1682),  an  able  antiquary  and 
physician,  author  of  Religio  Medici  (The  Religion  of  a  Phy- 
sician), and  an  Inquiry  into  Vulgar  Errors,  a  work  which  dis- 
plays great  eloquence,  learning,  and  shrewdness. 

Thomas  Decker,  a  writer  of  plays,  and  author  of  The  Gull's 
Horn  Book,  a  satirical  work  on  the  fashionable  follies  of  the 
day;  Sir  Thomas  Overbury,  a  witty  and  ingenious  describer 
of  character;  Owen  Feltham,  author  of  Resolves — Divine 
Moral,  and  Critical ;  and  Peter  Heylin,  a  writer  on  Geography 
— all  flourished  in  the  reign  of  James  I. 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  145 

Charles   I.  was  an  accomplished   writer,  besides   being  a 
patron  of  art.     A  work  has  been  usually  ascribed  to  him,  en- 
titled the  Elkon  Basilik^  (Royal  Image  or  Picture),  which  con 
tains  an  affecting  description  of  his  position,  character,  an 
mind,  during  his  confinement  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.    The  wa, . 
which  did  not  appear  till  after  his  decease,  is  nowbelieveo  nof 
to  be  Charles's  composition,  but  it  probably  was  revi^d  and 
added  to  by  him. 

John  Taylor,  an  enthusiastic  royalist  in  the  reig'ii  of  Charles 
I.,  who  had  originally  been  a  waterman  on  the  Thames,  kept 
a  public-house  in  London,  and  wrote  doggerel  verses,  which 
are  now  considered  curious,  as  descriptive  of  events  of  his 
time.  Taylor  described  himself  "  His  Majesty's  Water  Poet" 
by  which  designation  he  is  still  spoken  of.  He  made  an  ad- 
venturous journey  to  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  regarding 
which  he  narrates  some  surprising  incidents.— Died  1654. 

26.  When  did  English  newspapers  begin .?— The  earliest  Eng- 
1  lish  newspapers  or  news-letters  belong  to  the  reign  of  James 
i       L,  and  were  in  the  form  of  small  quarto  pamphlets.    The  first 

appeared  in  1619;  but  newspapers  embracing  general  intelli- 
gence did  not  appear  until  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 

The  Era  of  the  Comtnontcealth  to  the  Bevolution^ie49  to  1689, 

27.  What  was.  the  condition  of 'literature  during  this  era  ?— 
In  England,  there  was  a  series  of  distinguished  writers  in 
poetry  and  prose ;  but  in  Scotland  litera- 
ture suffered  a  remarkable  eclipse,  and 
did  not  prosper  till  long  afterwards. 

28.  Mention  the  names  of  some  of  the 
English  poets  in  this  ^r«.— Abraham  Cow- 
ley, Edmund  Waller,  Sir  John  Denham, 
Charles  Cotton,  the  Earl  of  Roscommon, 
John  Philips,  and  Sir  Charles  Sedley. 
But  the  works  of  *hese  and  some  others 
are  now  little  read,  and  the  really  great 
poets  of  the  period  possessing  a  lasting 
fame  are  as  follows-  J°^°  ^"^°'^- 

John  Milton  (1608— 1674),  author  of  Paradise  Lost,  a  poem 

7 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000     Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


[46 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE, 


in  blank  verse— the  greatest  epic  in  the  English  language ;  he 
also  wrote  a  number  of  minor  poems  of  great  beauty,  includ- 
ing L Allegro,  II  Penseroso,  and  Co?nus.  Milton  also  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  writer  of  treatises  in  favor  of  the  Com- 
monwealth and  the  principles  of  civil  liberty. 

Samuel  Butler  (161 2 — 1680),  author  of  Hudibras,  a  satirical 
poem,  written  after  the  Restoration,  and  designed  to  burlesque 
the  republican  and  over-zealous  ly  religious  party  which  had 
recently  held  sway. 

John  Dryden  (1631 — 1700),  a  poet  and  dramatist  by  profes- 
sion, who  flourished  in  London  for  many  years  after  1660. 
Dryden  (called  by  his  admirers  "  Glorious  John")  is  chiefly 
renowned  for  his  poems,  among  which  are  included,  Absalom 
and  Achitophel,  a  satire,  the  Year  of  Wonders,  Mac  Flecnoe, 
and  Fables  ;  also,  Alexander's  Feast,  or  the  Power  of  Music,  an 
Ode  for  St.  Cecilia  s  Day,  which  is  now  better  known  than  all 
his  other  poems.  He  also  translated  Virgil's  ^neid  into 
English  verse, 

Thomas  Otway  (165 1— 1685),  a  young  contemporary  of 
Dryden,  noted  for  his  tragedy  of  Venice  Preserved. 
29.  Mention  the  most  noted  prose  writers  of  this  era.- 
Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of  Clarendon  (1608— 1674),  who  was 
Lord  Chancellor  for  several  years  after  the  Restoration,  wrote 
a  History  of  the  Rebellion,  or  great  civil  war  in  England,  a  volu- 
minous work,  which  is  prized  for  its  liveliness  of  style  and 
accuracy  of  facts. 

Izaak  Walton  (1593— 1683),  ordinarily  styled  "Old  Izak 
Walton,"  is  renowned  as  the  author  of  the  Complete  Angler,  a 
work  full  of  pleasing  observations  on  rural  subjects,  which 
appeared  in  1653 ;  it  has  been  often  reprinted. 

John  Evelyn  (1620— 1706),  a  gentleman  of  easy  fortune, 
who  distinguished  himself  by  writing  several  scientific  works 
in  a  popular  style ;  he  is  best  remembered  as  the  author  of 
Sylva,  or  a  Discourse  on  Forest  Trees,  and  of  a  Diary,  which 
has  proved  a  most  valuable  addition  to  our  store  ol  historical 
materials. 

John  Locke  (1632— 1704),  the  greatest  philosophical  writet 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People. — See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Gods — See  page   248. 


U 


ENGLISH  LITER  A  TURE.  147 

of  the  period;  his  principal  production  is  the  Essay  on  tht 
Human  Under sta7tdmg,  still  a  standard  work. 

Samuel  Pepys  (1632 — 1703),  a  contemporary  of  Evelyn  ;  like 
him,  he  wrote  a  diary,  styled  his  Memoirs,  which  abounds  in 
amusing  particulars  concerning  the  court  of  Charles  II.  and 
the  manners  of  his  day. 

Dr.  Ralph  Cudworth  (1617 — 1688),  an  eminent  divine  and 
philosophical  writer;  his  principal  production  is  the  True 
Intellectual  Syste?n  of  the  Universe,  a  work  of  great  learning, 
acuteness,  and  loftiness  of  thought,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  overthrow  certain  atheistical  theories. 

Barrow,  Tillotson,  Sherlock,  Stillingfieet,  South,  Wilkins, 
Pearson,  and  Sprat,  were  all  divines  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land after  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  celebrated  for 
their  theological  writings — sermons  in  particular — which  are 

still  highly  esteemed. 

Richard  Baxter,  John  Owen,  John  Flavel,  and  Matthew 
Henry  were  all  celebrated  Nonconformist  preachers  after  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century,  and  their  works  still  hold  a  high 
place  in  theological  literature. 

John  Bunyan  (1628 — 1688),  the  son  of  a  tinker,  was  perse- 
cuted after  the  Restoration  for  holding  unlawful  Nonconform- 
ist assemblies ;  while  in  prison  on  a  charge  of  this  kind,  he 
wrote  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  from  this  World  to  that  which  is 
to  come — an  allegory  composed  in  simple  but  singularly  effec- 
tive English,  which  remains,  perhaps,  the  most  popular  work 
in  the  language. 

Sir  William  Temple  (1628 — 1699),  was  a  noted  diplomatist, 
statesman,  and  miscellaneous  writer,  who  possesses  a  high 
reputation  as  a  polisher  of  the  English  language.  From  his 
younger  brother.  Sir  John  Temple,  the  late  Lord  Palmerston 
(Henry-John  Temple)  was  descended. 

Sir  Matthew  Hale  (1609 — 1676),  celebrated  as  a  learned  and 
upright  judge  in  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth  and 
Charles  II.,  was  the  author  of  various  works,  chiefly  on  nat- 
ural philosophy.  His  principal  theological  work,  partaking 
of  Calvinistic  views,  is  entitled  Contemplations,  Moral  and 
Divine. 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12. — See  page   242. 


G 

> 
a 
c 

u 
O 

CO 

w 

CQ 

u 

C 

^3 


148  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

The  Honorable  Robert  Boyle  (1626— 1692),  son  of  the  Earl 
of  Cork,  was  eminent  as  a  writer  on  natural  philosophy  and 
theological  subjects.  He  instituted  and  endowed  the  "  Boyle 
Lectures,"  to  combat  atheistical  doctrines,  and  these  are 
still  delivered  annually. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  (1642 — 1727)  holds  by  universal  consent 
the  highest  rank  among  the  natural  philosophers  of  ancient 
and  modern  times.  His  great  work  is  in  Latin,  and  ordinarily 
known  as  the  Principia  (Mathematical  Principles  of  Natural 
Philosophy).  Newton,  who  was  noted  for  his  piety  and 
amiability  of  character,  wrote  also  some  treatises  on  theo- 
logical subjects. 

John  Ray  (1628— 1705),  an  eminent  naturalist  at  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century  ;  he  was  the  author  of  some  treatises  on 
plants  and  geography,  but  is  best  remembered  as  the  writer 
of  a  work  first  published  in  1691,  entitled  The  Wisdom  of  God 
in  the  Works  of  Creation. 

Gilbert  Burnet  (1643— 1715),  a  native  of  Edinburgh,  at  first  a 
Presbyterian  minister  in  Scotland,  and  at  last,  by  favor  of 
William  HL,  Bishop  of  Salisbury;  his  great  work  is  his  His- 
tory of  My  Own  Times,  giving  an  outline  of  the  events  of  the 
civil  war,  and  a  full  narrative  of  what  took  place  from  the 
Restoration  till  17 13.  Burnet's  work  remains  a  standard 
book  in  English  literature. 

The  Era  of  the  Meigns  of  William  III.,  Anne,  and  George  I.— 1689 

to  1727. 

30.  Was  literature  in  this  era  independent  of  support  from 
private  patrons? — No;  following  an  ancient  practice,  it  was 
still  customary  for  writers  to  secure  some  kind  of  encourage- 
ment from  wealthy  and  titled  persons  before  adventuring  on 
publication;  in  return  for  which  they  generally  appended  a 
dedication  to  their  patron. 

31.  What  were  Grub  Street  writers  ?— They  V7erQ  an  abject 
class  of  authors  who  lived  in  and  about  Grub  Street,  a  low 
street  in  London,  and  were  notorious  for  their  slanderous 
inventions  and  mercenary  dedications. 

32.  Why  did  not  writers  generally  depend  exclusively  on  public 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;  Destroyed,    1789. — See  page  407. 


xsrXTT 

Of  THt 
Of 


TORTOISE    HUNTING    IN    THE    TROPICS.       DESCRIBED    BY    DEFOE. — 149. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


149 


support  ? — Because,  as  yet,  the  numbers  of  readers  and  pur- 
chasers of  books  was  Hmited  ;  it  is  only  in  recent  times  that 
authors  have  been  able  to  depend  exclusively  on  public  pa- 
tronage, and  to  care  little  for  any  special  private  favor. 

33.  Who  were  the  British  Essayists  ? — They  were  a  series  of 
writers  of  essays  on  men  and  manners,  who  commenced  this 
entertaining  species  of  literature  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne. 
The  essays  appeared  in  certain  small  periodicals,  the  earlier 
of  which  were  the  Review,  Tatier,  and  Spectator. 

34.  Mention  the  principal  writers  in  the  era  from  1689  to 
1727.— 

Daniel  Defoe  (166 1 — 1731),  miscellaneous  writer  and  novel- 
ist ;  best  known  as  the  author  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  a  fiction 
universally  appreciated  ;  he  also  wrote  a  satirical  poem,  styled 
the  True-born  Englishinan,  and  a  History  of  the  Union  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland.  Defoe  is  likewise  celebrated  as  the  ear- 
liest of  the  essay  writers;  his  productions  in  this  department 
appeared  in  a  periodical  called  the  Review,  1704. 

Sir  Richard  Steele  (1675 — 1729)  was  an  Irishman  by  birth, 
who  became  popularly  known  in  London  as  "  Jovial  Dick 
Steele ;"  he  organized  the  Tatier,  1709,  and  afterwards  the 
Spectator,  171 1,  in  both  of  which  works  he  was  ably  assisted 
by  Addison.  Steele  possessed  great  fertility  of  invention,  as 
respects  incident  and  character,  and  his  papers  abound  in 
inimitable  touches. 

Joseph  Addison  (1672— 1719),  poet,  dramatist,  and  miscel- 
laneous prose  writer,  assisted  Steele  in  the  Tatier,  also  in  the 
Spectator,  to  which  he  contributed  many  papers  of  great  lit- 
erary finish,  including  those  on  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley. 
Johnson  says  of  him,  "  whoever  wishes  to  attain  an  English 
style,  familiar  but  not  coarse,  and  elegant  but  not  ostenta- 
tious, must  give  his  days  and  nights  to  the  volumes  of 
Addison." 

Matthew  Prior  (1664 — 1721),  a  poet  whose  works  include 
odes,  songs,  epistles,  epigrams,  and  tales— all  beautiful  in  versi- 
fication, and  full  of  humor  and  fine  feeling. 

Jonathan  Swift  (1667 — 1745),  a  ppet  and  miscellaneous 
political  writer,  whose  works  abound  in  satire  and  invective; 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian   Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


1 50  ENGLISH  LITER  A  TURE. 

his  best  known  productions  are  the  Tale  of  a  Tub,  and  Gullu 
ver's  Travels  ;  the  purity  of  his  prose  style  renders  it  a  model 
of  English  composition.  Swift  occupied  the  position  of  dean 
of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Dublin,  and  is  ordinarily  spoken  of 
as  "  Dean  Swift." 

Alexander  Pope  (1688— 1744),  an  eminent  poet,  celebrated 
for  his  Essay  on  Man,  which  abounds  in  splendid  passages 
which  are  constantly  quoted  ;  also  the  Rape  of  the  Lock,  and 
the  Dunciad ;  this  last  was  a  severe  satire  on  inferior  Grub 
Street  poets  and  pretenders.  Pope's  verse  is  exceedingly 
fluent,  and  he  shows  an  acute  knowledge  of  human  character. 

Henry  St.  John,  Viscount  Bolingbroke  (1678 — 1751),  wrote 
a  number  of  historical  and  speculative  treatises,  which  are 
eloquent  and  imaginative,  but  generally  unsound  in  principle  ; 
his  works  extend  to  several  volumes.  Pope  opens  his  Essay 
on  Man  with  an  address  to  Bolingbroke — 

"  Awake  my  Saint  John  !  leave  all  meaner  things 
To  low  ambition  and  the  pride  of  kings." 

Thomas  Parnell  (1679— 171 8),  a  poet  contemporary  with 
Swift  and  Pope,  best  remembered  for  his  poem.  The  Hermit, 

John  Gay  (1688— 1732),  poet  and  dramatist,  author  of 
Trivia,  or  the  Art  of  Walking  the  Streets  of  London  ;  Fables, 
and  the  play  of  the  Beggar  s  Opera  ;  he  also  wrote  various 
songs  and  ballads,  of  which  Black-eyed  Susan  remains  one  of 
the  most  popular. 

Tickell,  and  Ambrose  Philips,  as  poets  ;  and  Rowe,  Lillo, 
Congreve,  Vanbrugh,  Farquhar,  and  Gibber,  as  dramatists, 
considerably  enriched  the  literature  of  the  first  half  of  the 
1 8th  century. 

Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu  (1690 — 1762),  eldest  daughter 
of  the  Duke  of  Kingston,  who  had  lived  with  her  husband  at 
Constantinople,  became  celebrated  for  her  Letters,  which  are 
models  of  the  epistolary  style — easy,  familiar,  and  elegant, 
and  interesting  from  their  pictures  of  eastern  manners  and 
their  fashionable  gossip. 

Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  third  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  (1671 — 
1713),  famed  as  a  metaphysician  ;  his  great  work  is  entitled 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from     1793     to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo  was    Fought    June    i8,    1815.— See   page    368 


c» 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


151 


Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners,  Opinions,  and  Times  \  as  a 
moralist  he  maintains  doctrines  in  opposition  to  Hobbes. 

Dr.  George  Berkeley  (1684— 1753),  who  became  Bishop  of 
Cloyne,  in  Ireland,  was,  like  Shaftesbury,  eminent  as  a  writer 
on  metaphysical  subjects;  his  works,  of  which  his  J heory  oj 
Vision  is  the  most  remarkable,  form  an  important  landmark 
in  philosophical  science.  His  system  is  generally  spoken  of 
as  idealistic — that  is,  a  system  which  makes  the  reality  of  the 
world  depend  on  the  human  consciousness  of  it. 

Dr.  Francis  Atterbury,  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  Dr.  William 
Lowth,  and  Dr.  Benjamin  Hoadly,  were  all  celebrated  English 
divines  in  this  era,  and  have  left  theological  works  of  great 
note.  With  these  writers  may  be  associated  Charles  Leslie, 
author  of  a  work,  still  popular,  A  Short  ajid  Easy  Method  with 
the  Deists. 

Dr.  Humphrey  Prideaux  (1648 — 1724),  was  author  of  The 
Connection  of  the  History  of  the  Old  and  New  Testame7its,  a 
work  highly  esteemed,  and  invaluable  to  all  students  of 
divinity. 

35.  Who  was  Joe  Miller? — He  was  a  facetious  and  popular 
comedian,  who  acted  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre  in  the  early  part 
of  the  1 8th  century,  and  died  1738.  After  his  death,  a  volume 
of  jests,  collected  by  a  literary  man  named  Mottley,  was  issued 
as  Joe  Miller  s  Jests  ;  and  the  name  "  Joe  Miller"  has  ever 
since  been  associated  with  books  of  this  kind. 

The  Era  of  the  Heign  of  George  II.— 1727  to  1760, 

36.  What  was  remarkable  in  this  era  ? — The  revival  of  liter- 
ature in  Scotland  after  a  long  depression.  The  revival  was  of 
two  kinds — the  rise  of  poets  who  wrote  in  the  Scottish  dialect, 
and  were  therefore  distinctly  national,  and  the  rise  of  writers, 
Scotchmen  by  birth,  whose  works  were  a  contribution  to 
English  literature. 

37.  Mention  some  of  the  national  poets  of  Scotland  at  this 
'period. —  ' 

The  first  place  is  due  to  Allan  Ramsay  (1686 — 1758),  who 
wrote  many  popular  ballads  and  songs ;  but  the  work  from 
which  he  derives  lasting  fame  is  the  Gentle  Shepherd,  a  pas« 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619.— See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born    1564 ;      Died    1616.  —  See    page     143. 


1 


52 


ENGLISH  LITER  A  TURE. 


toral  in  the  Scottish  dialect  of  singular  beauty — perhaps  the 
finest  pastoral  ever  written — which  appeared  in  1725.  Ram- 
say lived  and  died  in  Edinburgh,  where  a  monument  has 
lately  been  erected  to  his  memory. 

The  poets  of  Scotland  of  lesser  note  in  this  era  were  Sem- 
pill  of  Beltrees,  William  Hamilton  of  Bangour,  Robert  Craw- 
ford, Sir  Gilbert  ElUot,  and  Rev.  John  Skinner. 

38.  Who  were  the  writers,  Scotchmen  by  birth,  who  at  this 
time  enriched  English  literature  ? — Thomson,  Mallet,  Hume 
Smollett,  and  some  others.  The  more  noted  of  this  class  take 
their  place  among  English  writers  in  the  following  list — 

James  Thomson,  born  at  Ednam,  near  Kelso,  1700,  author 
of  The  Seasons,  a  poem  in  blank  verse,  abounding  in  beautiful 
rural  imagery  and  fine  feeling ;  he  also  wrote  The  Castle  oj 
Indolence,  and  some  other  poems.  Thomson  died  in  1728,  and 
was  buried  at  Richmond.  His  tomb  is  referred  to  in  a  melli- 
fluous and  tender  Ode  on  his  death  by  Collins — 

*'  In  yonder  grave  a  Druid  lies, 

Where  slowly  winds  the  stealing  wave. 
The  year's  best  sweets  shall  duteous  rise, 
To  deck  its  Poet's  sylvan  grave 

■ '  Remembrance  oft  shall  haunt  the  shore, 
When  Thames  in  summer  wreaths  is  drest, 
And  oft  suspend  the  dashing  oar, 
To  bid  his  gentle  spirit  rest !" 

William  Collins  (1720 — 1756),  famed  for  his  odes,  particu- 
larly his  Ode  to  the  Passions,  his  Dirge  in  Cymbeline,  and  other 
poems  characterized  by  great  imagination  and  sweetness. 

Dr.  Isaac  Watts  (1674 — 1748),  a  name  ever  to  be  pronounced 
with  reverence  ;  he  was  the  author  of  numerous  small  poems 
and  hymns  of  great  beauty  and  simplicity  ;  he  likewise  wrote 
treatises  on  Logic,  and  on  the  Improvement  of  the  Mind. 

Michael  Bruce,  a  youthful  poet  in  Scotland,  who  died  1767, 
composed  a  number  of  beautiful  Scripture  paraphrases  and 
other  pieces,  which  have  been  much  admired. 

Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  (1709— 1784),  "  the  Leviathan  of  English 
literature,"  scholar,  poet,  essayist,  lexicographer,  and  miscel- 
laneous writer.     Beginning  the  profession  of  an  author  about 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302. 


EJ^GLISH  LITER  A  TURE. 


153 


173 1,  he  wrote  London,  a  satire  in  verse  ;  The  Rambler,  dLnd  Idler, 
two  series  of  essays;  Rasselas ;  Lives  of  the  Poets,  and  vari- 
ous other  works  ;  but  his  great  production  was  his  Dictionary 
0/  the  English  language,  which  occupied  him  seven  years,  and 
appeared  in  1755.  Johnson  visited  the  Hebrides  in  1773,  and 
wrote  an  account  of  his  journey. 

William  Some rvi lie  (1692 — 1742),  author  of  The  Chase,  2t.poQm 
on  field-sports;  William  Shenstone  (1714 — 1763), pastoral  and 
elegiac  poet ;  David  Mallet  (1700 — 1765),  writer  of  ballads,  one 
of  which,  William  arid  Margaret,  is  of  particular  excellence  ; 
Mark  Akenside  (1721 — 1770),  author  of  Pleasures  of  the  Imagi- 
nation, a  poem  more  classical  than  popular  ;  and  George  Lord 
Lyttleton  (1709— 1 773).  writer  of  various  poems  of  merit — 
were  among  the  distinguished  literary  men  in  this  era. 

Thomas  Gray  (17 16 — 1771),  a  poet  who,  though  writing 
little,  greatly  excelled  most  of  his  contemporaries;  his  poem, 
Elegy  written  in  a  Country  Churchyard,  is  deservedly  among 
the  most  popular  in  the  language. 

David  Hume  (171 1— 1776),  eminent  as  a  metaphysician  and 
historian;  his  first  production  was  his  Treatise  on  Human 
Nature,  published  in  1738,  and  the  views  in  which  were  of  a 
sceptical  tendency.  Hume,  however,  is  best  known  by  his 
History  of  Eftgland,  w^hich  was  not  completely  issued  until 
1762 ;  this  history,  though  popular  from  the  ease  and  elegance 
of  the  narrative,  is  now  considered  to  be  not  a  good  authority. 

Henry  Fielding  (1707— 1754),  the  greatest  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury novelists,  but  so  coarse  in  some  of  his  pictures  of  char- 
acter, that  he  is  now  less  popular  than  formerly ;  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  Joseph  Andrews,  Tom  Jones,  and  Amelia, 
which  have  been  often  reprinted. 

Tobias  George  Smollett  (1721 — 1771),  distinguished  as  a 
historian,  novelist,  and  poet,  made  literature  a  profession. 
He  wrote  a  continuation  of  Hume's  history,  but  his  chief 
popularity  is  derived  from  his  Roderick  Random,  Peregrine 
Pickle,  and  Humphrey  Clinker,  novels  which  abound  n  char- 
acteristic humor;  he  also  wrote  some  poems,  the  most  ad- 
mired being  his  Ode  to  Independence.     Smollett  stands  prom- 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


;^ 


154  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

inently  out  as  an  author  at  the  close  of  the  reign  of  George 
II.,  and  commencement  of  the  reign  of  George  III. 

Samuel  Foote  (1721— 1777),  an  actor,  author  of  humorous 
plays  and  farces  at  one  time  very  popular,  and  whose  wit- 
ticisms are  scattered  through  the  old  jest-books. 

Samuel  Richardson  (1689 — 1761),  was  a  printer  in  London, 
who  acquired  celebrity  as  a  novelist ;  his  works  are  Pamela, 
Clarissa  Harlowe,  and  Sir  Charles  Grandison,  all  very  volum- 
inous and  tedious,  but  acknowledged  to  be  true  pictures  of 
the  human  character. 

39.  When  did  Magazines  begin  ? — The  Gentleman's  Magazine 
the  first  of  this  class  of  monthly  periodicals,  was  commenced 
in  1731,  by  Edward  Cave,  who  employed  Samuel  Johnson  as 
one  of  its  contributors. 

40.  When  did  EncyclopcEdias  begin? — The  first  English 
Encyclopaedia,  or  Dictionary  of  Universal  Knowledge,  was 
that  of  Ephraim  Chambers,  published  in  1728,  and  often  re- 
printed until  superseded  by  the  later  encyclopaedias. 

41.  When  did  Annual  Registers  begin? — The  first  was  com- 
menced by  Robert  Dodsley,  a  bookseller  in  London,  in  1758, 
and  is  still  carried  on.  Dodsley,  who  was  originally  a  foot- 
man, wrote  a  poem.  The  Muse  in  Livery,  and  did  service  to 
literature  as  a  collector  and  publisher  of  old  plays  and 
poems. 

Tlie  Era  of  the  Early  Part  of  the  Keign  of  George  III.— 1760  to  1800. 

42.  Mention  the  more  noted  authors  of  this  era. — Some  of 
the  distinguished  writers  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  had 
already  risen  to  fame  in  the  reign  of  George  II. — for  example 
Hume,  Smollett,  and  Johnson.  Leaving  out  these,  the 
following  were  among  the  more  eminent  writers  of  this 
period. — 

Oliver  Goldsmith  (1728 — 1774),  a  native  of  Ireland,  bred 
to  medicine,  but  an  author  by  profession.  He  wrote  the 
beautiful  and  well-known  poems,  The  Traveller,  and  The 
Deserted  Village ;  the  exquisite  novel,  The  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field;  the  plays.  She  Stoops  to  Conquer  and  The  Good-natured 
Man  ;  besides  other  works  of  much  excellence. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See  page    133. 


ENGLISH  LITERA  TURE. 


155 


James  Boswell  (1740 — 1795),  a  young  advocate  at  the  Scot- 
tish bar,  took  an  extraordinary  fancy  for  Johnson,  and  fre- 
quently visiting  him  in  London,  collected  his  sayings  in  his 
celebrated  Life  of  that  personage,  one  of  the  most  amusing 
works  ever  written.  Boswell  also  narrates  his  Tour  to  the 
Hebrides  with  Johnson  in  1773. 

James  Macpherson  (1738 — 1793),  originally  a  schoolmaster 
in  the  Highlands,  and  acquainted  with  Gaelic,  wrote  The 
Poems  of  Ossian,  founded  on  scraps  of  poetic  legend — which, 
unfortunately  for  his  reputation,  he  represented  as  the  real 
composition  of  Ossian,  son  of  Fingal,  a  Celtic  hero  or  bard 
of  the  4th  century. 

Thomas  Chatterton,  born  1752,  a  youth  of  precocious  poetic 
genius,  who  in  a  fit  of  desperation  killed  himself  with  arsenic, 
1770,  wrote  some  odes  and  other  poems  as  avowedly  his  own 
productions,  but  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  imposing  many 
others  as  compositions  of  the  15th  century. 

Dr.  Thomas  Percy,  latterly  Bishop  of  Dromore,  editor  of  the 
Reliques  of  EjiglishPoetry,  in  which  several  old  songs  and  bal- 
lads are  revived  ;  and  Thomas  Warton,  author  of  a  History 
of  English  Poetry,  were  two  literary  celebrities  between  1765 
and  1780. 

William  Falconer,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1730,  and  bred 
a  sailor,  wrote  the  Shipwreck,  a  poem  which  became  a  favo- 
rite from  its  vivid  and  accurate  descriptions.  The  author 
perished  at  sea,  1769,  thus  in  the  end  terribly  realizing  his 
own  poetic  fancies. 

James  Beattie  (i735— 1803),  a  native  of  Kincardineshire, 
attained  celebrity  as  the  author  of  the  Minstrel,  a  didactic 
poem  in  the  Spenserian  stanza,  also  for  his  ethical  work,  an 
Essay  on  Truth. 

Christopher  Smart,  author  of  the  Song  to  David  (died 
1770) ;  William  Mickle,  a  native  of  Dumfriesshire,  author  of 
Cumnor  Hall,  and  other  poems  of  merit  (died  1789) ;  and 
Thomas  Moss,  author  of  The  Beggar  s  Petition  (died  1808),  are 
numbered  among  the  noted  writers  of  this  era. 

Dr.  John  Wolcot,  a  physician  in  London,  wrote,  between 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle, — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65. 


156 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


1778  and  1808,  a  large  number  of  satirical  pieces  in  verse, 
under  the  adopted  name  of  Peter  Pindiar ;  these  effusions 
were  once  exceedingly  popular,  but  are  now  nearly  all  for- 
gotten.    Wolcot  died  181 9. 

Mrs.  Barbauld  (1743 — 1825),  occupied  a  respectable  place  a3 
a  literary  lady  in  this  era.  She  wrote  poems,  lyrical  and  de- 
votional, and  some  very  excellent  essays.  Her  contributions 
to  Evenings  at  Home,  a  w^ork  for  children,  are  well  known. 

Sir  William  Jones  (1746—1794),  an  eminent  linguist,  with 
able,  statesman-like  views,  performed  important  services,  by 
his  oriental  researches,  particularly  in  connection  with  the 
languages  and  antiquities  of  India. 

Joanna  Baillie  (1762 — 1851),  daughter  of  a  Scottish  parish 
minister,  w^rote  a  series  of  dramas,  entitled  Plays  on  the  Pas- 
sions, which  appeared  about  1798,  but  are  unsuited  for  acting. 

Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan,  born  in  Dublin,  1751,  became 
celebrated  as  a  writer  of  clever  and  popular  plays;  in  1775 
he  produced  his  comedy.  The  Rivals,  and  shortly  afterwards, 
The  School  for  Scandal,  and  The  Critic.  Sheridan  had  also  a 
political  career,  his  speeches  in  parliament  being  marked  by 
flashes  of  eloquence  and  wit.  From  his  singular  improvi- 
dence, he  died  in  distress,  1816. 

George  Colman  the  Younger,  a  comic  dramatist,  contem- 
porary with  Sheridan,  wrote  a  number  of  popular  plays,  in- 
cluding The  Heir  at  Law,  and  the  musical  opera  of  Inkle 
and  Yarico,  between  1784  and  1800;  he  afterwards  produced 
a  variety  of  clever  poetical  effusions. — Died  1836. 

Thomas  Holcroft  (1745 — 1809),  was  a  noted  translator  of 
works  from  the  French,  one  of  the  best  known  of  these 
productions  being  the  Tales  of  the  Castle,  from  the  French 
of  Madame  de  Genlis.  He  was  also  the  author  of  thirty 
plays,  the  most  admired  of  which  is  The  Road  to  Ruin,  a 
comedy. 

Mrs.  Elizabeth  Inchbald,  an  actress  about  1780,  gained 
celebrity  as  author  of  two  tales.  The  Simple  Story,  and  Nature 
and  Art;  latterly  shjg  edited  a  well-known  collection  of  plays. 
—Died  1821.  X 


lulius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles. — See  page  47. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE, 


157 


Laurence  Sterne,  born  in  171 3  at  Clonmel,  in  Ireland,  was 
the  son  of  an  officer  in  the  army,  and  became  a  clergyman 
in  England  ;  as  a  novelist,  he  was  next  in  order  of  time  and 
genius  to  Fielding  and  Smollett.  Excelling  in  the  comic  and 
pathetic,  he  wrote  Tristram  Shandy,  which  was  completed  in 
1767,  and  The  Sentimental  Journey,  which  appeared  in  1768, 
the  year  of  his  death. 

Horace  Walpole,  Earl  of  Orford,  third  son  of  Sir  Robert 
Walpole — born  1717,  was  a  noted  man  of  letters  in  this  era. 
He  revived  romance-writing  by  producing  The  Castle  of 
Otranto,  but  he  has  had  greater  fame  on  account  of  \i\^  Letters, 
which  embrace  a  vast  amount  of  curious  information  regard- 
ing the  fashionable  world  during  his  time.  His  dwelUng, 
Strawberry  Hill,  was  an  extraordinary  museum  of  curiosities. 
— Died  1797. 

Henry  Mackenzie,  born  at  Edinburgh  1745,  eminent  as  the 
author  of  The  Man  of  Feeling,  a  novel  which  appeared  in 
1771  ;  he  wrote  some  other  novels  of  less  note,  and  was  the 
principal  contributor  to  the  Mirror  and  Lounger,  He  long 
survived  these  literary  efforts,  and  died  in  1831. 

Frances  Burney  (1752 — 1840),  authoress  of  Evelina,  a  simple 
novel  of  great  merit,  published  in  1778,  also  of  Cecilia  ;  after- 
wards, she  was  a  keeper  of  the  robes  to  the  queen  of  George 
HI.,  an  office  of  which  she  gives  an  account  in  her  Diary,  a 
work  in  several  volumes.  Miss  Burney  was  married  in  1793 
to  a  French  refugee  officer,  the  Count  d'Arblay,  by  whose 
name  she  accordingly  became  known. 

William  Beckford  (1759 — 1844),  a  wealthy  English  gentle- 
man, was  the  author  of  Vathek,  an  Arabian  tale,  which  ap- 
peared in  1786.  Byron  praises  this  romance  for  its  correct- 
ness of  costume,  beauty  of  description,  and  power  of  imagin- 
ation.    Beckford  wrote  some  other  works  of  less  note. 

Sophia  and  Harriet  Lee,  two  sisters  who  died  at  an  ad- 
vanced age — the  last  survivor  in  1851 — gained  celebrity  for 
their  Canterbury  Tales,  which  appeared  in  1797. 

Dr.  John  Moore,  born  at  Stirling,  1729;  some  time  a  med- 
ical practitioner  in  Glasgow,  and  afterwards  in  London,  was 
the  author  of  Zeluco,  and  other  fictions. — Died  1802.     His 

7a 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation    of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


1 5  8  ENGLISH  LITER  A  TURE, 

eldest  son  was  General  Sir  John  Moore,  who  distinguished 
himself  in  the  famous  retreat  in  the  Peninsula. 

Charlotte  Smith  was  the  authoress  of  several  popular 
novels,  which  appeared  about  1790;  one  of  her  female  con- 
temporaries as  a  romance-writer  was  Mrs.  Ann  Radcliffe,  who 
produced  her  Mysteries  of  Udolpho  in  1797. 

Dr.  William  Robertson  (1721 — 1793),  a  minister  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  was  eminent  as  an  historian ;  his  works, 
which  are  written  in  a  luminous  and  elegant  style,  are.  His- 
tory of  Scotland,  History  of  the  Reign  of  Charles  V.,  History  of 
America,  and  Historical  Disquisition  on  Ancient  India — all  of 
which  are  now  standard  works  in  English  literature. 

Edward  Gibbon  (1737 — 1794),  was  a  historian  of  great  erudi- 
tion and  comprehensive  and  critical  intellect.  While  resid- 
ing at  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland,  in  1787,  he  completed  his 
History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  a  work 
involving  immense  research,  and  which  places  the  author  as 
the  first  of  English  historians;  his  style,  however,  though 
splendid,  is  not  good,  and  his  representation  of  ecclesiastical 
history  must  be  received  with  caution.  The  work  has  been 
translated  into  almost  every  European  language. 

Dr.  William  Paley  (1743 — 1805),  archdeacon  of  Carlisle,  was 
eminent  for  his  ethical  and  philosophical  writings  ;  his  best 
known  works  are  his  Elements  of  Moral  and  Political  Philos- 
ophy, published  in  1785;  hx^  Horce  Paulince  (1790);  and  his 
Natural  Theology,  1802. 

Dr.  Hugh  Blair,  one  of  the  ministers  of  Edinburgh,  author 
of  Serjnons,  distinguished  for  their  elegance  of  style  (died 
1800) ;  Dr.  Samuel  Horsley,  bishop  of  St  Asaph,  critic  and 
scholar,  and  author  of  various  controversial  disquisitions 
(died  1806);  and  Dr.  Richard  Watson,  bishop  of  Llandaff, 
anthorof  An  Apology  for  the  Bible  (died  1816)  ;  occupied  a 
high  rank  among  divines  towards  the  conclusion  of  the  i8th 
century. 

William  Wilberforce  (1759—1833),  eminent  as  a  statesman, 
philanthropist,  and  writer  on  religious  subjects  ;  he  is  most 
prominent,  however,  for  his  extraordinary  exertions  in  favor 


Croesus,   a   King  in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


159 


of  the  abolition  of  slavery  within  the  British  dominions, 
which  he  lived  to  see  effected. 

Edmund  Burke  (1730 — 1797),  a  native  of  DubHn,  eminent 
as  a  philosophical  and  eloquent  statesman,  wrote  several  po- 
litical and  other  treatises ;  his  most  famous  work  is  his  In- 
quiry into  the  Origin  of  our  Ideas  of  the  Sublime  and  Beauti- 
ful, but  his  best  is  Reflections  07i  the  French  Revolution. 

Dr.  Adam  Smith,  born  at  Kirkcaldy,  1723,  was  for  some 
years  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  where  he  wrote  his  Theory  of  the  Moral  Sentiments. 
Smith  is  best  known  by  his  Wealth  of  Nations,  a  work  com- 
prehending advanced  views  of  political  economj^  which  ap- 
peared in  1776,  and  remains  the  great  text-book  on  the  sub- 
ject. 

Dr.  Adam  Ferguson  (1724 — 1816),  a  native  of  Perthshire, 
eminent  for  his  learning,  was  for  some  years  Professor  of 
Moral  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  His  chief 
works  are  the  History  of  Civil  Society,  published  in  1766;  In- 
stitutes of  Moral  Philosophy,  1769  ;  and  History  of  the  Roman  Re- 
public, 1783— this  last  the  most  valuable  of  all  his  writings. 

Mrs.  Hannah  More  (1745 — 1833),  a  pious  and  literary  lady, 
wrote  a  number  of  religious  and  moral  treatises,  which  ap- 
peared from  1782  to  1819,  but  her  best  known  production 
is  a  novel,  Ccelebs  ift  Search  of  a  Wife,  1809. 

James  Bruce  of  Kinnaird,  a  Scottish  gentleman  of  ancient 
family  and  property,  born  1730,  wrote  an  account  of  his 
Travels  to  discover  the  Sources  of  the  Nile,  which  appeared  in 
1790. —Died  1794. 

Mungo  Park,  a  native  of  Selkirkshire,  born  1771,  acquired 
celebrity  from  his  Travels  in  Africa,  which  appeared  1799, 
and  attained  great  popularity.  This  observant  and  enterpris- 
ing traveller  perished  in  a  second  African  expedition,  1805. 

William  Cowper  (1731 — 1800),  an  eminent  poet,  spent  part 
of  his  life  as  a  recluse  at  Olney,  in  Buckinghamshire  ;  his  chief 
poems  are  Table  Talk,  The  Progress  of  Error,  The  Task,  and 
Expostulation,  but  he  wrote  a  number  of  minor  pieces,  includ- 
ing John  Gilpin.  His  works  are  mostly  didactic,  and  beat 
evidence  of  a  thoughtful  mind  and  gentle  spirit.     Cowper 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second. — See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821 — See  page  411. 


160  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

forms  a  connecting-link  between  the  18th-century  poets  and 
those  of  later  times. 

43.  Who  was  David  Garrick .?— He  was  a  celebrated  actor 
of  the  i8th  century,  born  1716.  Garrick  was  great  alike  in 
comedy  and  tragedy,  and  was  manager  of  Drury  Lane  Thea- 
tre for  29  years.  He  retired  from  the  stage,  1776,  and  died 
1779- 

44.  Who  were  the  Kembles  f—Th^y  were  a  remarkable 
family  of  actors  subsequent  to  the  age  of  Garrick.  The  most 
noted  of  the  group  was  John  Kemble  (1757— 1823,)  and  his 
sister  Sarah,  who  became  Mrs.  Siddons  (1755— 1 831),  both 
eminent  in  representing  the  tragic  characters  of  Shakspeare. 

45.  What  were  the  Ireland  forgeries? — They  were  forgeries 
of  various  documents  alleged  to  be  the  writings  of  Shaks- 
peare, executed  by  a  youth,  W.  H.  Ireland  (1777— 1834).  For 
a  time  they  imposed  on  the  public;  but  the  fraud  was  at 
length  detected,  and  ultimately  acknowledged,  1805. 

46.  What  Scottish  poets  appeared  in  the  second  half  of  the 
\%th  century  ?—TherQ  were  ten  or  more,  whose  lyrics  and 
other  pieces  enrich  the  National  literature  of  Scotland.  The 
more  famed  members  of  the  group  were  as  follows : 

Lady  Anne  Lyndsay  who  about  1771, 
wrote  the  ballad,  Auld  Robin  Gray ; 
by  marriage,  her  name  became  Lady 
Anne  Barnard. — Died  1825. 

Miss  Elliot  and  Mrs.  Cockburn,  each 
the  authoress  of  aversion  oi  The  Flow- 
ers of  the  Forest — both  versions  are 
popular. 

1*     Robert   Fergusson,  born    at  Edin- 
burgh, 1750,  attained    celebrity  as   a 
Robert  Burns.  Scottish  poet  of  city-lif e,  and  died  1 774. 

Robert  Burns,  the  greatest  of  the  Scottish  poets,  son  of 
a  small  farmer  in  Ayrshire,  born  January  25th,  1759  ;  his 
works  were  first  issued  in  1786,  and  at  once  stamped  him  as  a 
poet  of  the  highest  order.     His  life  was  an  almost  continuous 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    OccuU   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


en 

V 

bo 
ct 
P. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  i6l 

struggle  with  difficulties,  and  he  died  prematurely,  July  21st, 
1796. 

Alexander  Wilson  (1766— 181 3),  a  native  of  Paisley,  author  of 
Watty  and  Meg,  and  other  poems,  chiefly  humorous.  He  em- 
igrated to  the  United  States,  and  there  produced  a  meritorious 
work  on  America7t  Ornithology. 

Hector  Macneill  (1746— 1818),  author  of  the  poem,  Scotland's 
Skaz'th,  or  the  History  of  Will  and  Jean,  designed  to  picture 
the  evils  of  intemperance.  Macneill  wrote  also  some  popular 
lyrics. 

47.  What  was  the  "  Poetry  of  the  Anti-  Jacobin  ?"—Vi  consist- 
ed of  clever  poetical  effusions  contributed  to  the  Anti- Jaco- 
bin, a  weekly  paper  in  London,  1797,  which  had  been  estab- 
lished to  counteract  the  wild  Jacobin  sentiments  propagated 
by  the  French  revolutionists, 

48.  Who  were  the  chief  writers  in  the  Anti-  Jacobin? — The 
two  most  noted  were  William  Gifford,  who  ultimately  became 
editor  of  the  Quarterly  Review  (died  1826);  and  George  Can- 
ning, who  attained  celebrity  as  a  statesman  (died  1827). 

49.  What  is  to  be  ujiderstood  by  the  "  Scotch  SchooF  of  Phil- 
osophy f—ThdA,  designation  has  been  applied  to  a  system  of 
sober  and  rational  inquiry  into  the  faculties  and  modes  of 
operation  of  the  human  mind,  which  originated  in  Scotland 
in  the  i8th  century,  in  opposition  to  the  scepticism  of  Hume. 

50.  Mention  some  of  the  more  rioted  Scottish  philosophers.— 
Dr.  Thomas  Reid,  author  of  an  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind 
(died  1796);  Dugald  Stewart,  author  of  Outlines  of  Moral 
Philosophy  diXidi  other  works  (died  1828);  Dr.  Thomas  Brown 
(died  1820) ;  and  Sir  William  Hamilton  (died  1856),  whose 
profound  philosophical  works  have  lately  been  published. 

51.  Mention  some  of  the  more  emi7tent  men  of  science  in  this 
era.—John  Hunter,  eminent  in  surgical  and  anatomical 
science  (died  1793) ;  Edward  Jenner,  who  attained  universal 
celebrity  as  the  discoverer  of  vaccination  (died  1823) ;  Joseph 
Black  (died  1799),  and  Joseph  Priestley  (died  1804),  both  dis- 
tinguished for  their  discoveries  in  chemistry  and  natural  phil- 
osophy;  James   Watt,   the  great   perfecter  of    the   steam- 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000     Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidei;e,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


162  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

engine  (died  1819) ;  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  distinguished  as  a 
naturaHst  (died  1820);  and  Sir  William  Herschel,  a  native  of 
Hanover,  eminent  for  his  astronomical  discoveries  (died 
1822). 

52.  What  was  the  "  Huttonian  Theory  f" — It  was  a  theory 
propounded  by  James  Hutton,  an  emment  geologist  (died 
1797),  to  the  effect  that  certain  beds  and  masses  of  rock  took 
their  form  and  character  from  fire,  or  had  been  produced  by 
igneous  agency. 

53.  What  was  the  "  Wernerian  Theory  ?" — It  was  to  the  effect 
that  all  rocks,  including,  of  course,  those  referred  to  by  Hutton, 
took  their  form  and  character  from  water,  or  were  produced 
by  aqueous  agency.  This  theory  was  given  to  the  world  by 
Werner,  an  eminent  German  mineralogist.  The  Huttonian  is 
sometimes  called  the  "  Plutonic  theory  ;"  while  the  Wernerian 
is  sometimes  called  the  "  Neptunian  theory." 

54.  What  is  now  thought  of  these  contending  theories  ? — Geo- 
logists are  generally  of  opinion  that  the  views  of  Werner,  as 
far  as  the  rocks  referred  to  by  Hutton  are  concerned,  are 
wrong. 

Tlie  Era  of  the  Conclusion  of  the  Tteign  of  George  III.,  and  Meigns  of 
George  ir^Williani  IV., and  Victoria— 1801  to  1865. 

55.  When  did  Reviews  begin  ? — The  earliest  was  the  Monthly 
Re7>i(rw,  begun  1749  ;  and  some  others  were  commenced  in  the 
i8th  century;  but  the  first  established  of  any  note  was  the 
Edinburgh  Review,  which  began  in  1802. 

56.  By  whom  was  the  Edinburgh  Review  begun  ? — It  was  set 
on  foot  by  a  group  of  able  young  writers,  of  Whig  principles, 
including  Francis  Jeffrey,  Rev.  Sydney  Smith,  Francis  Horner, 
Henry  Brougham,  and  some  others. 

57.  Whe7t  was  the  Quarterly  Review  begun? — It  was  com- 
menced in  1809,  by  writers  professing  Tory  or  Conserva- 
tive principles,  and  became  the  political  opponent  of  the 
Edinburgh. 

58.  Mention  the  more  noted  writers  from  the  beginning  of  the 
\<^th  century. — 

Rev.  George  Crabbe,  born  in   Suffolk    1754,  author  of  TM 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was   the   Food    of  the   Gods. — See  page   248. 


ENGLISH  LITER  A  TURE. 


163 


Village,  Parish  Register,  The  Borough,  Tales  of  the  Hall,  and 
other  poems,  published  between  1781  and  1818.  Crabbe  has 
been  called  "  the  poet  of  the  poor,"  for  many  of  his  simple 
and  pathetic  descriptions  refer  to  humble  life  in  rural  dis- 
tricts.— Died  1832. 

Jeremy  Bentham  (1748— 1832),  was  an  eminent  writer  on 
Political  Economy  and  Jurisprudence ;  he  adopted  as  his 
standard  principle  in  social  questions,  "  the  greatest  happiness 
of  the  greatest  number" — a  phrase  often  since  quoted. 

Samuel  Rogers,  son  of  a  banker  in  London,  born  1763,  was 
the  author  of  various  poems  which  were  issued  only  after 
long  and  patient  study.  Rogers  was  essentially  the  poet  of 
taste.  His  principal  poems  are  Pleasures  of  Memory,  Human 
Life,  and  Italy.  After  being  a  noted  man  of  letters  for  the 
greater  part  of  a  century,  he  died  1855. 

William  Wordsworth,  born  in  Cumberland  1770,  author  of 
The  Excursion,  a  philosophical  poem  in  blank  verse ;  The 
White  Doe  of  Rylstone,  Sonnets  on  the  River  Duddon,  and  num- 
erous minor  poems,  abounding  in  pathos,  grace  of  imagery, 
and  subtle  beauty  of  language.  His  noble  sonnets  have 
rarely,  if  ever,  been  surpassed.  The  term  "  Lake  School," 
applied  to  Wordsworth  and  his  personal  friends  and  brother- 
poets,  Coleridge  and  Southey,  has  little  or  no  meaning,  and 
is  now  falling  into  disuse. — Died  1850. 

Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge,  born  in  Devonshire  1772,  a  pro- 
found thinker  and  imaginative  poet  wrote  numerous  poems, 
of  which  the  three  most  appreciated  are  Christabel,  Genevieves 
and  The  Ancient  Mariner. — Died  1834. 

Robert  Southey,  born  at  Bristol  1774,  was  noted  not  only 
as  a  poet,  but  as  a  biographer,  antiquary,  critic,  and  historian. 
While  young,  he  wrote  a  poem,  Wat  Tyler,  which  he  after- 
wards withdrew  ;  his  later  and  best  known  poems  are  Thalaba 
The  Curse  of  Keha7na,  and  Roderick,  The  Last  of  the  Goths. 
His  most  popular  prose  works  are  the  Life  of  Nelson,  and 
Life  of  John  Wesley;  he  wrote  numerous  articles- in  the 
Quarterly  Review,  and  was  the  author  altogether  of  above  100 
volumes.  Southey  was  appointed  poet-laureate  in  1813.^ 
Died  1843. 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


03 


O 


164  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

Charles  Lamb,  born  in  London  1775,  poet  and  essayist, 
was  remarkable  for  his  humor,  and  kindness  of  feeling.  His 
poems  are  now  little  heard  of,  and  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on 
his  essays,  which  were  contributed  to  the  London  Magazine 
under  the  signature  of  Elia.  By  his  assumed  designation, 
Lamb  is  best  known  in  literature. — Died  1834. 

Thomas  Moore,  born  in  Dublin  1779,  became  distinguished 
for  his  sentimental  lyrics  and  his  poetical  satires.  The  more 
conspicuous  of  his  political  satires  were  his  Twopenny  Post- 
bag,  and  The  Fudge  Family  in  Paris ;  but  these  and  all  his 
other  poetical  effusions  have  been  obscured  by  the  brilliancy 
of  his  Irish  Melodies,  and  his  Lalla  Rookh,  both  alike  imper- 
ishable.— Died  1852. 

Thomas  Campbell,  born  in  Glasgow  1777,  and  for  a  time  a 
tutor  in  the  Island  of  Mull,  was  the  author  of  the  Pleasures  oj 
Hope,  which  appeared  in  1799,  and  at  once  placed  its  youthful 
author  in  the  first  rank  of  poets.  Campbell  afterwards  wrote 
Gertrude  of  Wyoming,  and  other  poems ,  also  several  songs, 
two  of  which.  The  Exile  of  Erin,  and  Ye  Mariners  of  England. 
will  ever  remain  popular. — Died  1844. 

Walter  Scott,  born  in  Edinburgh  1771,  was  eminent  as  a 
poet,  but  more  so  as  a  novelist.  He  began  his  literary  career 
as  an  editor  of  old  ballads,  a  collection  of  which,  with  some 
modern  imitations,  was  published  under  the  title  of  Min- 
strelsy of  the  Scottish  Border.  His  first  poem.  The  Lay  of  the 
Last  Minstrel,  appeared  in  1802,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mar- 
mion.  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  and  The  Lord  of  the  Isles  ;  these, 
and  most  of  his  other  poems,  were  exceedingly  fluent  and 
descriptive,  and  marked  by  strong  national  feeling.  Waver- 
ley,  the  first  of  his  celebrated  novels,  appeared  in  1814.  He 
was  created  a  baronet  by  George  IV.  Scott  died  at  Abbots- 
ford,  his  favorite  country  residence  on  the  Tweed,  1832. 

George  Gordon  Byron,  Lord  Byron,  born  in  London  1788, 
was  one  of  the  most  eminent  English  poets  of  this  era.  His 
first  volume  of  poetry,  entitled  Hotirs  of  Idleness,  appeared  in 
1807,  and  on  its  being  reviewed  unfavorably  by  the  Edin- 
burgh Review,  he  was  provoked  to  write  a  severe  satire,  En- 
glish Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers.     In  181 2  appeared  the  first 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page   407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


w 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


165 


part  of  his   Childe  Harold,  and  afterwards  he  produced    in 

quick  succession  The  Giaour,  Bride  of  Abydos,  Corsair,  Lara, 

Siege  of  Corinth,  Prisoner  of  Chillon, 

and  other  poems.     Byron  excelled  in 

painting  strong  and  gloomy  passions, 

and  no  poet  in  modern  times  has  so 

effectually  stirred  the  depths  of  the 

human    heart.      His    great    work    is 

Childe  Harold,  a  noble    poem    in  the 

Spenserian  stanza. — Died  in  Greece, 

1824. 

William  Hazlitt  was  a  miscellaneous 
writer,   whose   criticisms   on    poetry,  Byron 

the  drama,  and  the  fine  arts,  and  also  his  essays,  show  a  bold 
and  vigorous  mind  ;  his  sparkling  and  pungent  style  is  partic- 
ularly fascinating. — Died  1830. 

Rev.  Sydney  Smith,  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, born  1 77 1,  began  his  literary  career  as  one  of  the  ori- 
ginators of  the  Edinburgh  Rez'iew.  He  produced  a  number 
of  works  of  passing  interest,  poetical  and  satirical,  all  in  the 
cause  of  social  amelioration,  and  marked  by  a  fine  genial 
spirit.  He  died  1845,  and  an  amusing  memoir  of  his  life  ha? 
been  given  to  the  world  by  his  daughter,  Lady  Holland. 

59.  Mention  sorne  noted  poets  contemporarywith,  or  successor f 
to,  Scott  and  Byron. — Percy  Bysshe  Shelley  (drowned  1822); 
James-Henry  Leigh  Hunt,  ordinarily  called  Leigh  Hunt,  who 
was  eminent  as  an  essayist  as  well  as  a  poet  (died  1859);  John 
Keats  (died  1821);  James  Montgomery,  religious  poet  (died 
1854);  and  Thomas  Hood,  eminent  for  his  humorous  and  pa- 
thetic poetry  (died  1845). 

60.  Mention  some  of  the  minor  but  popular  poets  of  this  era. 
— Henry  Kirke  White  (died  1806);  John  Leyden  (died  181 1) ; 
Rev.  James  Grahame  (died  181 1) ;  John  Clare,  known  as  the 
"  Northamptonshire  Peasant"  (died  1864) ;  James  and  Horace 
Smith,  authors  of  the  Rejected  Addresses  ;  and  Mrs.  Hemans 
(died  1835). 

61.  Mention  some  poets  in  the  early  part  of  the  igth  century 
who  used  the  Scottish  dialect. — James   Hogg,   known  as  the 


O 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


1 66  ENGLISH  LITER  A  TURE. 

"  Ettrick  Shepherd,"  author  of  The  Queens  Wake,  and  the 
greatest  Scottish  poet  after  Burns  (died  1835)  ;  Robert  Tan- 
nahill,  author  of  several  fine  lyrics  (died  1810)  ;  and  Allan  Cun- 
ningham, ballad  and  song  writer  (died  1842).  Those  of  less 
note  were  James  Mayne,  William  Tennant,  and  Sir  Alexander 
Boswell.  Latterly,  some  beautiful  and  popular  Scottish 
lyrics  have  been  written  by  James  Ballantine,  Edinburgh. 

62.  Who  was  John  Wilsdn  ? — He  was  a  poet,  novelist,  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Paisiey  1785 ;  but  though  a 
Scotsman  by  birth,  his  writings  belong  to  English  literature. 
He  was  a  noted  contributor  to  Blackwood' s  Magazine,  in 
which  he  was  known  as  "  Christopher  North."  Wilson  was 
some  years  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh. — Died  1854. 

63.  Mention  some  eminent  novelists  of  this  era. — Besides 
Scott  and  Wilson,  the  list  of  novelists  includes  J.  G.  Lock- 
hart,  John  Gait,  Theodore  Hook,  Samuel  Lover,  C.  J.  Lever, 
lohn  Banim,  William  Carleton,  W.  H.  Ainsworth,  G.  P.  R. 
lames,  Anthony  Trollope,  and  Benjamin  Disraeli — this  last 
sinter  being  also  a  statesman  distinguished  for  his  eloquence. 
There  has  been  likewise  a  number  of  female  novelists. 

64.  Mention  the  7nore  eminent  of  the  female  novelists  ? — Mrs. 
Opie,  Lady  Morgan  (originally  Miss  Owenson),  Miss  Austen, 
Mrs.  Brunton,  Miss  Mitford,  Miss  Ferrier,  Mrs.  S.  C.  Hall, 
Mrs.  Trollope,  Miss  Bronte  (better  known  by  her  pseudonym 
of  Currer  Bell),  Miss  Evans  (who  writes  under  the  name  of 
George  Eliot),  Mrs.  Henry  Wood,  and  Miss  Mulock.  But 
this  list  could  be  greatly  enlarged. 

65.  Mention  four  celebrated  writers  of  fiction  of  our  own 
times. — W.  M.  Thackeray  (died  1863) ;  Douglas  Jerrold  (died 
1857) ;  Charles  Dickens  (died  1870)  ;  and  Sir  Edward  Bulwer 
Lytton  (died  1873). 

66.  Mention  four  eminent  historians  of  our  own  times. — Lord 
Macaulay  (died  1859),  author  of  History  of  England,  fro7n  the 
Accession  of  James  II.  ;  J.  A.  Froude,  author  of  The  History 
of  England fro7n  the  fall  of  Wolsey  to  the  Death  of  Elizabeth, 
a  work,  the  first  part  of  which  was  written  to  vindicate  the 
character  of  Henry  VHL  ;  George  Grote  (died  1871),  author 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793     to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo  was    Fought   June    i8,    1815 See   page    368. 


ENGLISH  LITER  A  TURE.  167 

of  The  History  of  Greece,  a  work  of  great  erudition,  and  Sir 
Archibald  Alison  (died  1867),  author  of  The  History  of  Europe 
from  the  Commencement  of  the  French  Revolution. 

67.  Mention  sofne  distinguished  scientific  writers  in  the  pres* 
ent  century. — Sir  Humphry  Davy,  noted  for  his  discoveries 
in  chemistry  (died  1829)  ;  John  Dalton,  also  eminent  for 
chemical  discoveries,  particularly  as  concerns  gases  (died 
1844) ;  Sir  Charles  Lyell  and  Sir  Roderick  Impey  Murchison 
(died  1871),  eminent  geologists;  Sir  David  Brewster  (died 
1868),  eminent  for  his  discoveries  in  natural  philosophy ;  Hugh 
Miller,  a  popular  illustrator  of  geology  (died  1856) ;  Richard 
Owen,  eminent  for  his  expositions  of  natural  history  and 
physiology;  Sir  John  Herschel  (died  1871),  eminent  for  his 
astronomical  speculations,  and  his  brilliant  success  in  diffus- 
ing a  knowledge  of  his  favorite  science. 

68.  Mention  some  noted  miscellaneous  writers  iti  our  own 
times. — Thomas  De  Quincey,  an  essayist  distinguished  for 
subtlety  of  fancy  and  intellect  (died  1859) ;  John  Ramsay 
M'Culloch,  writer  on  political  economy  (died  1864) ;  Rev.  Dr. 
Thomas  Chalmers,  author  of  various  theological  works  (died 
1847)  ;  Thomas  Carlyle,  author  of  the  History  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  and  numerous  other  historical  and  politico-moral 
works;  John  Stuart  Mill  (died  1873),  author  of  works  on 
logic  and  political  economy ;  Henry,  Lord  Brougham  (died 
1868),  writer  of  Memoirs  of  the  Statesinen  of  the  Reign  of 
George  III.,  and  many  other  works  ;  John,  Lord  Campbell 
(died  1861),  author  of  Lives  of  the  Chancellors  ;  and  John,  Earl 
Russell,  a  distinguished  statesman,  and  author  of  several 
works. 

69.  Mention  an  English  eminent  poet  in  the  reign  of  Victoria. 
-Alfred  Tennyson,  born  18 10,  author  of  In  Meinoriain,  Idylls 

of  the  King,  and  numerous  other  poems.  Mr.  Tennyson  holds 
the  office  of  poet-laureate,  which  was  previously  held  by 
Wordsworth. 

70.  What  is  the  office  of  poet-laureate? — It  is  an  office  rn  the  gift 
of  the  sovereign,  which  originated  about  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward IV.  Until  recent  times,  the  duty  of  the  laureate  was  to 
write  an  ode  on  the  birthday  of  the  sovereign,  and  some- 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


168  ENGLISH  LITER  A  TURE. 

times  on  the  occasion  of  a  national  victory.    The  office  is 
now  honorary,  with  emoluments  amounting  tO;^i27  annually. 

71.  What  zs  the  "  Harlezan  Collection?" — It  is  a  collection 
of  valuable  manuscripts  in  the  British  Museum,  purchased 
by  parliament  in  the  reign  of  George  IV.  The  collection  was 
formed  by  Robert  Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford,  an  eminent  states- 
man and  great  patron  of  literature,  who  died  1724. 

72.  When  was  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowl^ 
edge  established? — It  was  established  in  1825,  and  in  1827  it 
commenced  to  issue  treatises,  the  first  of  which  was  written 
by  Lord  Brougham.  The  society  existed  only  a  few  years, 
but  was  of  great  service  in  promoting  a  popular  taste  for 
literature. 

73.  When  did  cheap  literature  of  the  kind  now  prevalent 
begin? — It  began  in  1832,  in  the  reign  of  William  IV.  One 
ol  the  most  eminent  pioneers  of  this  species  of  popular  lit- 
erature was  Charles  Knight,  London. 

74.  Me?ttion  a  remarkable  change  that  has  taken  place  in  litera- 
ture.— The  decline  of  dramatic  and  poetic  literature,  and  a 
corresponding  increase  in  the  number  of  novels,  written  less 
to  depict  real  life  than  to  excite  and  startle — ordinarily 
called  "  sensational  novels ;"  such  a  marked  change  being 
coincident  with  alterations  in  public  taste. 

75.  What  is  ''copyright?" — It  is  a  right  of  property  pos- 
sessed by  authors  in  the  works  they  compose,  which  right 
they  can  sell  or  assign.  In  the  United  Kingdom,  the  right, 
with  some  qualifications,  is  valid  for  42  years,  or  during  the 
lifetime  of  the  author.  The  law  of  copyright  dates  only  from 
the  reign  of  Queen  Anne. 

76.  What  is''  liberty  of  the  press?" — It  is  the  printing  and 
vending  of  books,  newspapers,  and  other  kinds  of  literature 
without  interruption  from  any  public  authority.  This  free- 
dom prevails  in  its  fullest  extent  in  the  United  Kingdom,  the 
only  statutory  restriction  imposed  being  on  the  issue  of  works 
of  an  immoral  tendency. 

'J'].  Has  literature  been  successfully  cultivated  in  the  United 
States  of  America? — Yes;  but  only  in  recent  times,  when 
there  have  been  numerous  writers,  whose  works  exhibit  the 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in   1588. — See   page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long. — See    page    302. 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


169 


same  characteristics  as  those  of  their  EngHsh  contemporaries. 

78.  Mention  some  of  the  earlier  American  writers. — 
Benjamin  Frankhn,   man  of  science  and  statesman,  who, 

besides  Essays  and  miscellaneous  papers,  wrote  his  Autobiog' 
raphy,  an  amusing  work  which  details  his  youthful  struggles 
as  a  printer. — Died  1790. 

Jonathan  Edwards,  died  1758,  and  Timothy  Dwight,  died 
1830;  both  eminent  for  their  theological  writings. 

Charles  Brockdon  Brown,  celebrated  for  his  xiOY^\?>— Arthur 
Mervyn  and  others— which  appeared  from  1798  to  1804.— 
Died  1809. 

79.  Mention  some  more  recent  American  writers. — 
George  Bancroft  (born   1800),  eminent  for  his  History  of 

America,  and  other  works. 

Washington  Irving,  historical  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
but  best  known  as  author  of  the  Sketch-Book  (died  1859). 

W.  H.  Prescott,  author  of  The  History  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  and  other  works  (died  1859). 

Ralph  W.  Emerson,  a  very  subtle  metaphysician  of  the 
transcendental  school. 

James  Russell  Lowell,  author  of  the  Biglow  Papers. 

J.  K.  Paulding  (died  i860),  Edgar  Allan  Poe  (died  1849),  and 
W.  C.  Bryant,  poets. 

Dr.  Noah  Webster  (died  1843),  celebrated  ^^r  his  Dictionary 
of  the  English  Language. 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne  (deceased),  J.  F.  Cooper  (died  1851), 
and  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  novelists. 

The  most  popular  of  living  American  poets  is  Henry  Wads- 
worth  Longfellow,  author  of  Evangeline,  the  Song  of  Hia- 
watha,  and  other  poems. 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 

I.   What  are  the  Fine  Arts  f — They  include  Painting,  Sculp- 

8 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators.— See    page 


278. 


170  THE  FINE  ARTS. 

ture,  Architecture,  Music,  and  other  branches  of  art  of  a  re- 
fined or  ornamental  nature. 

Painting. 

2.  In  what  does  Painting  co7isist  ? — It  consists  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  natural  and  artificial  objects  by  means  of  colors 
on  walls,  canvas,  paper,  and  other  flat  surfaces. 

3.  Mention  some  of  the  leading  departments  in  the  art  of 
painting. — Historical  painting,  landscape  painting,  marine 
painting,  portrait  painting,  animal  painting,  and  the  painting 
of  droll  scenes  and  familiar  objects.  Historical  painting, 
which  embraces  subjects  in  scripture  and  civil  history,  is 
considered  to  be  the  highest  department  in  the  art. 

4.  Is  the  art  of  painting  of  ancient  date? — Yes  ;  it  was  prac- 
tised in  Egypt  at  a  very  remote  period,  and  in  ancient  Greece, 
and  in  Rome. 

5.  Who  was  Apelles? — He  was  the  most  renowned  of  the 
Grecian  painters,  and  flourished  between  336  and  306  b.  c. 
For  some  years  he  practised  his  art  at  the  court  of  Philip  of 
Macedon,  and  executed  a  picture  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
The  finest  of  Apelles's  paintings  was  his  Venus  rising  from 
the  Sea,  with  a  shower  of  silver  drops  falling  round  her  like 
a  veil  of  gauze. 

6.  What  is  Perspective? — It  is  the  science  which  teaches 
the  art  of  depicting  and  placing  objects  in  the  manner  in 
which  they  appear  to  the  eye  in  nature — the  parts  which  are 
near  being  larger  than  those  at  a  distance,  according  to  cer- 
tain rules  and  proportions. 

7.  What  are  Pigments  ? — They  are  the  coloring  substances 
employed  by  painters,  and  usually  consist  of  chemical  and 
mechanical  preparations  of  metal  united  with  oil — the  re- 
sult being  what  is  termed  "oil  painting,"  as  distinguished 
from  painting  with  water-colors  or  with  size. 

8.  Who  were  the  Byzantine  artists? — They  were  artists  of 
Byzantium  or  Constantinople,  by  whom  the  art  of  painting 
was  preserved  during  the  middle  ages,  and  communicated  by 
them  to  Italy,  Germany,  and  other  countries  early  in  the  13th 
century. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779.— See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the   Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See   page    133 


THE  FINE  ARTS.  x'J\ 


{» 

I 

2  couragement  from  successive  popes  and  wealthy  ecclesias- 

"  I        tics,  who  employed  them  to  decorate  places  of  public  wor- 


9.  From  whom  did  the  Byzantine  artists  and  their  successors  re- 
ceive encoicrageinent  in  Italy  and  elsewhere  ? — They  received  en- 


ship  with  subjects  from  sacred  history. 

10.  Mention  two  of  the  noted  early  Italian  painters. — Cima- 
bue,  who  flourished  about  1270,  and  Giotto,  about  1300;  but 
there  were  several  others. 

11.  What  is  meant  by  schools  of  painting  ? — By  *'  schools"  is 
signified  styles  of  treating  subjects  which  have  been  adopted 
in  different  cities  and  countries.  Thus,  there  are  the  Roman, 
Florentine,  Bolognese,  and  Venetian,  which  constitute  the 
Italian  schools ;  also  the  French,  Spanish,  Flemish,  Dutch, 
and  English  schools. 

12.  Mention  the  three  greatest  painters  of  the  Italian  school. 
— Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Raphael,  all  of 
whom  flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century,  and 
gave  a  new  character  to  art. 

13.  What  was  the  most  celebrated  work  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci f  — The  Last  Sttpper,  a  painting  executed  on  an  inner 

wall  in  a  monastery  at  Milan  about  the 
year  1500;  this  great  work,  which  has 
been  often  copied  in  engravings,  is  now 
in  a  very  decayed  condition. 

14.  Who  was  Raphael? — He  was  the 
greatest  of  the  Italian  painters.  His 
proper  name  was  Raffaelle  Sanzio  of 
Urbino ;  he  was  born  in  1483,  and  died 
when  36  years  of  age,  1520.  His  in- 
structor was  Perugino,  a  famed  Italian 
artist.     During  his  short  career,  Raphael  Raphael. 

rose  to  the  highest  fame  as  an  artist,  and  he  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  Roman  school.  His  chaste  nobleness  of  design, 
simplicity  and  beauty  of  proportion,  and  truth  to  nature,  are 
his  leading  characteristics.  His  greatest  picture  is  the  Trans- 
figuratio7i  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome.  He  is  called  by  the  Ital- 
ians the  "  Divine  Raphael," 

15.  What  are  the  Cartoons  of  Raphael? — They  are  paintings 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist. — See  page  65. 


PQ 


O 


172  THE  FINE  ARTS. 

in  water-colors  on  stout  paper,  representing  subjects  from 
the  New  Testament,  designed  as  patterns  for  tapestry  ;  seven 
of  these  were  purchased  by  Charles  I.,  and  were  placed  in 
Hampton  Court. 

16.  State  some  particulars  concerning  Michael  Angela.— His 
name,  in  full,  was  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti ;  he  was  born 
in  Tuscany,  1474.  Although  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Flor- 
entine school,  his  gieat  works  were  executed  in  Rome— his 
most  famous  production  being  the  Last  Judgment,  which  is 
painted  on  the  ceiling  and  end  wall  of  the  Sistine  chapel,  and 
is  remarkable  for  its  representation  of  the  grand  and  the  ter- 
rible. Michael  Angelo,  who  was  great  in  sculpture  and  arch- 
itecture, as  well  as  in  painting,  died  1563. 

17.  Who  was  Correggiof—Ue  was  the  founder  of  the 
school  of  Parma  or  Lombardy,  which  had  for  its  chief  char- 
^cterictics  a  harmony  of  colors  and  a  powerful  contrast  of 
light  and  shade.  Correggio  died  1534.  His  most  famous  pic- 
ture, called  La  Notte  (the  night),  is  in  the  collection  at  Dres- 
den ;  it  represents  the  Virgin  bending  over  the  Infant  Jesus, 
from  whom  streams  a  celestial  light,  which  irradiates  sur- 
rounding objects — a  marvellous  triumph  of  art. 

18.  Who  was  Titian? — He  was  a  very  eminent  painter  of 
the  Venetian  school,  born  about  1480,  and  a  contemporary 
of  Correggio.  The  most  celebrated  of  Titian's  pictures  is  the 
Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  which  he  painted  for  an  altar-piece 
in  1 5 16;  it  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  finest  pictures  in 
the  world.  Titian  died  1576,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  Vene- 
tian school  by  Tintoretto  and  Paul  Veronese. 

19.  Who  was  Canaletto  ? — He  was  a  later  painter  of  the  Vene- 
tian school,  who  died  in  London,  1768.  His  pictures,  which 
are  exceedingly  fine,  represent  architectural  subjects,  chiefly 
the  palaces  of  Venice. 

20.  Who  were  the  Caraccis? — They  were  three  noted  pain- 
ters, founders  of  the  Bolognese  school,  kinsmen  and  fellow- 
laborers,  who  flourished  about  1600.  Some  of  the  finest  works 
of  Annibal  Caracci  are  in  Bologna.  The  Caraccis  were  fol- 
lowed by  Domenichino  (died  1641),  and  Guido  Reni,  both  of 
whom  have  left  grand  pictures  on  sacred  subjects. 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles. — See   page  47. 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


173 


21.  Who  was  Albert  Diirer? — He  has  been  styled  the  father 
of  the  German  school  of  painting,  and  prince  of  artists.  He 
was  born  at  Nurnberg,  147 1,  and  distinguished  himself  in 
youth  by  his  exquisite  carving;  he  subsequently  adopted 
painting  as  his  profession.  He  excelled  in  originality  and 
accuracy  of  design.     Albert  Durer  died  1528. 

22.  Who  was  Holbein? — Hans  Holbein  was  a  painter  of  the 
German  school,  a  contemporary  of  Albert  Durer ;  removing 
to  England,  he  executed  several  portraits  of  Henry  VHI. ; 
born  1498;  died  1554. 

23.  Who  was  Salvator  Rosa  f — He  was  an  Italian  artist  of 
extraordinary  genius — painter,  poet,  musician,  and  actor- 
born  161 5  ;  he  practised  painting  at  Rome,  where  he  was  at 
the  height  of  his  reputation  in  1639,  His  favorite  landscapes 
are  gloomy  and  romantic  solitudes,  which  are  painted  with 
great  force  of  imagination. — Died  1673. 

24.  Who  was  Claude  Lorraine  ? — He  was  a  great  landscape 
painter;  his  proper  name  was  Claude  Gelee,  and  he  had  the 
name  Lorraine  from  being  born  in  that  province  of  France, 
1600.  Claude  practised  his  ait  at  Rome,  and  became  remark- 
able for  his  exquisite  representation  of  rural  scenery. — Died 
1682. 

25.  Mention  two  leading  masters  of  the  French  school. — 
Nicholas  Poussin  (died  1665),  and  Charier  Le  Brun  (died 
1690).  Poussin  was  celebrated  for  his  landscapes,  with  scr'p- 
tural  and  classic  figures,  which  possess  a  certain  poetic  feel- 
ing. Le  Brun,  who  was  of  Scottish  extraction,  executed  vari- 
ous historical  paintings  for  Louis  XIV. 

26.  Who  were  the  Vernets  f — There  have  been  three  note- 
able  French  painters  of  that  name — father,  son,  and  grand- 
son. The  first,  Claude  Joseph  Vernet,  born  at  Avignon, 
1714,  was  renowned  for  his  sea-pieces,  with  shipping,  which 
are  well  known  from  engravings.  The  second.  Carle  Vernet, 
born  1758,  was  equally  celebrated  for  his  battle-pieces.  The 
third,  Horace  Vernet,  born  1789,  attained  distinction  for  his 
gigantic  pictures  representing  events  in  recent  French  history, 
which  embellish  the  walls  of  the  royal  palaces. 

27.  Who  was   Waiteau  f — He  was  a  French  painter,  bora 


c 
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The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728.— See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


«} 


174 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


1684,  whose  style  of  art  is  very  peculiar.  Watteau's  pictures 
represent  rural  fStes,  with  fancifully-dressed  shepherds  and 
shepherdesses — a  species  of  Arcadian  poetry  on  canvas  ; 
died  1 72 1.  A  scene  with  people  of  fashion  scattered  theatri- 
cally about  among  trees,  is  said  to  be  "  after  Watteau." 

28.  Who  was  Greuze? — He  was  a  celebrated  French  painter, 
born  1726,  who  carried  art  forward  to  the  19th  century. 
Greuze  excelled  in  exciting  and  pathetic  scenes — his  series 
of  pictures  depicting  the  history  of  a  prodigal  son,  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Louvre,  being  perhaps  the  best  known.  He 
has  been  styled  the"  French  Hogarth." — Died  1805. 

29.  Who  was  David? — He  was  a  French  painter,  greatly 
encouraged  by  Napoleon  I.,  and  gained  celebrity  as  the 
founder  of  a  French  classical  style,  which  is  now,  however, 
regarded  as  too  formal. — Died  1825.  Paul  de  la  Roche  (died 
1856)  held  a  high  place  in  the  French  school  of  historical 
painting. 

30.  Who  is  Rosa  Bonheur? — She  is  a  French  lady,  born  at 
Bordeaux,  1822,  who  has  gained  celebrity  as  an  animal 
painter.  Her  pictures  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty,  vigor 
and  fidelity  to  nature. 

31.  Who  was  Rubens? — Peter  Paul  Rubens,  born  1577, 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  Flemish  school  of  painters.  He  ex- 
celled in  coloring  and  in  boldness  of  execution  ;  all  his  figures 
being  remarkable  for  strong  physical  development.  The 
grand  pictures  of  Rubens  represent  Scripture  subjects,  one 
of  the  best  known  of  which  is  the  Descent  fro7n  the  Cross,  in 
the  cathedral  at  Antwerp. — Died  1640. 

32.  Who  are  the  other  noted  painters  of  the  Flemish  school '  — 
Anthony  Van  Dyck,  died  in  England,  1641  ;  David  Teniers 
the  Younger,  celebrated  for  vivid  transparent  effects — died 
1694  ;  and  Snyders,  noted  for  hunting  scenes — died  1657. 

33.  Who  was  Rembrandt? — Rembrandt  was  a  painter  ad-^ 
mitted  to  be  the  head  of  the  Dutch  school,  born  1606.  His 
pictures  are  noted  for  originality  of  design,  and  a  rich  golden 
tone  of  coloring. — Died  1669. 

34.  Who  was  Paul  Potter? — He  was  an  eminent  painter  of 
the  Dutch  school,  born  1625.     His  grandest  and  best  known 


Croesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg, — See    page   305, 


THE  FINE  ARTS, 


175 


piece  is  his  Bull,  now  in  a  national  collection  at  the  Hague, 
which  is  visited  by  innumerable  tourists  for  the  pleasure  of 
seeing  this  single  picture. — Died  1654. 

35.  Mention  some  other  distinguished  painters  of  the  Dutch 
school? — Cuyp,  Terburgh,  Ostade,  Hobbima,  Karl  du  Jarden, 
Jan  Steen,  Van  de  Velde,  Ruisdaal,  Gerard  Douw,  Berghem, 
and  Wouvermans — all  of  whom  flourished  in  the  17th  century. 

36.  What  is  a  ge?teral  characteristic  of  the  Dutch  school? — 
Many  of  the  pictures,  particularly  those  of  Ostade  and  the 
elf^^r  Teniers,  represent  scenes  of  low  humor,  others  have 
a  higher  aim.  Ruisdaal  is  celebrated  for  his  dashing  water- 
falls, and  Berghem  and  Wouvermans  for  their  beautiful  small 
pictures  representing  subjects  with  animals. 

37.  Mention  two  great  masters  in  the  Spanish  school? — Velas- 
quez, who  died  1660;  and  Murillo,  who  died  1682.  Murillo 
is  by  far  the  most  eminent  Spanish  painter,  and  his  works  are 
numerous  and  highly  prized.  He  is  well  known  for  pictures 
of  beggar  boys,  also  for  his  sacred  subjects,  particularly  the 
Virgin  and  Child,  in  which  he  excels. 

38.  Who  was  Spagnoletto  ? — He  was  a  native  of  Spain 
named  Ribera,  but  proceeding,  while  young,  to  Italy,  he  was 
there  called  Spagnoletto,  or  the  little  Spaniard,  by  whir^  he 
became  known  in  art.  He  excels  as  a  painter  of  gloomy  and 
ghastly  subjects,  such  as  martyrdoms  and  heads  of  aged  and 
dying  monks,  all  strikingly  faithful  to  nature. — Died  1656. 

39.  When  did  painting  rise  to  eminence  in  England? — Not 
till  the  1 8th  century;  but  previously,  through  the  encourage- 
ment given  to  the  fine  arts,  by  Charles  I.,  a  class  of  native 
painters  had  begun  to  rise  up. 

40.  Who  was  Sir  Peter  Lely  ? — He  was  a  native  of  West- 
phalia, born  1617  or  1618,  who  came  to  England,  and  was  ap- 
pointed state-painter  by  Charles  H.,  who  had  known  him  in 
Holland.  Lely  is  best  known  for  his  charmingly  executed 
portraits  of  the  beauties  of  the  court  of  Charles  H. — Died 
1680. 

41.  Who  was  Hogarth? — William  Hogarth,  born  1697, 
Was  the  first  distinguished  English  painter,  and  with  him  the 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821 — See  page  411. 


175  THE  FINE  ARTS. 

English  school  commenced  ;  he  was  at  the  height  of  his  fame 
in  1745.  Hogarth's  chief  pictures  were  moral  and  satiric; 
those  best  known  being  the  March  to  Finchley,  Marriage  h 
la  Mode,  and  the  Rakes  Progress.  These,  and  his  other 
pictures,  all  highly  esteemed,  have  been  often  engraved. — • 
Died  1764. 

42.  Who  was  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  f — He  was  the  greatest  of 
English  portrait-painters,  born  1723.  He  excelled  in  style 
and  coloring — his  pictures  being  soft  and  delicate  in  tone, 
with  a  high  intellectual  quality.  He  was  the  first  President 
of  the  Ro3^al  Academy,  founded  1768,  and  delivered  Discourses 
ifn  Paintijtg,  which,  often  printed,  form  a  valuable  manual  for 
young  and  aspiring  artists. — Died  1792. 

43.  Mention  some  noted  English  painters  contemporary  with 
Rey7iolds. — Gainsborough,  a  painter  of  portraits,  also  of  cot- 
tage-doors and  other  rural  scenes — died  1788;  Benjamin 
West,  a  historical  painter — died  1820;  and  John  Opie — died 
1807.  One  of  the  greatest  of  Reynolds'  successors  in  portrait 
painting  was  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence  (1769 — 1830). 

44.  Who  are  the  Landseers  ? — They  are  a  family  of  artists — 
the  father,  John  Landseer,  an  engraver  (died  in  his  83d  year, 
(852),  and  three  sons;  Thomas,  engraver  ;  Charles,  a  painter; 
and  Sir  Edwin  (died  1873),  celebrated  for  his  numerous  fine 
paintings  of  deer  and  other  animals. 

45.  Mention  so7ne  other  noted  English  painters  of  recent  years. 
— Turner,  famed  for  landscapes  (died  185 1);  Stanfield  (died 
1867),  celebrated  for  sea-pieces  ;  Ward,  eminent  as  a  historical 
painter;  Mulready  (died  1863),  famed  for  his  pictures  repre- 
senting domestic  and  familiar  subjects  ;  Frith,  noted  for  his 
success  in  pieces  representing  a  multitude  of  figures ;  and 
Cooper,  painter  of  cattle- pieces,  etc. 

46.  Who  was  the  earliest  Scottish  painter? — The  first  native 
painter  in  Scotland  was  George  Jamesone,  born  in  Aberdeen 
about  1586  ;  after  studjnng  under  Rubens  at  Antwerp,  he  at- 
tained eminence  as  a  portrait  painter  in  his  native  country. 
Died  at  Edinburgh,  1644. 

47.  When  did  a  school  of  painters  arise  in  Scotland? — In  the 


"  Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


THE  FINE  ARTS.  1 77 

i8th  century,  through  the  instructions  given  by  an  institu- 
tion called  the  "  Board  of  Trustees,"  estabUshed  to  encourage 
different  departments  of  art.  Latterly,  the  fine  arts  in  Scot- 
land have  been  promoted  by  the  Royal  Scottish  Acadejny. 

48.  Mention  some  distinguished  Scottish  painters. — Alexander 
Nasmyth  (1758— 1840),  a  distinguished  landscape  painter;  Sir 
David  Wilkie  (1785 — 1841),  inimitable  in  his  domestic  scenes; 
Sir  Henry  Raeburn  (1756 — 1823),  a  portrait  painter,  whose 
works  are  remarkable  for  their  delicacy  and  richness  of 
color  ;  Rev.  John  Thomson  (1778 — 1840),  landscape  painter; 
and  David  Roberts  (1796 — 1864),  celebrated  for  his  grand, 
irchitectural  pieces  ;  for  the  most  part  of  his  life,  however, 
Roberts  pursued  his  profession  in  London.  Besides  these, 
Scotland  has  lately  produced  a  host  of  painters — John  Philip, 
Thomas  Faed,  Horatio  MacCulloch,  Noel  Paton,  George 
Harvey,  etc. — well  known  in  the  higher  branches  of  art. 

49.  What  are  "  gallery  pictures  ?" — They  are  paintings  of  a 
large  size,  adapted  for  public  galleries,  and  are  so  called  to 
distinguish  them  from  "cabinet pictures,"  or  those  of  a  small 
size  suited  for  ordinary  apartments. 

50.  What  is  meant  by  "kit-cat" pictures? — The  term  hit-cat 
IS  applied  to  portraits  on  canvas  measuring  about  23  inches 
broad  by  36  inches  in  depth  ;  it  originated  in  the  fact  of  Sir 
Godfrey  Kneller,  a  painter  in  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury, having  executed  portraits  that  size  of  members  of  the 
Kit-cat  Club.  This  club  took  its  name  from  Kit  (or  Christo- 
pher) Cat,  in  whose  tavern  it  held  its  meetings. 

51.  What  are  "genre"  pictures? — The  French  word  genre 
signifies  "  kind,"  and  is  employed  to  designate  pictures  of 
some  special  variety.  The  best  known  genre  pictures  are 
those  with  figures  having  a  certain  moral  aim — pictures,  in 
fact,  which  tell  a  story,  but  do  not  attain  the  character  of 
being  historical.  For  example,  the  chief  productions  of 
Hogarth,  Greuze,  Wilkie,  and  Mulready  2iXe  genre  pictures. 

52.  What  are  "  Pre-Raphaelite"  pictures  ? — They  are  pictures 
by  certain  painters  who  believe  that  they  adhere  to  the  prin- 
ciples which  they  conceive  to  have  guided  the  art  that  pre- 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


178  THE  FINE  ARTS. 

vailed  previous  to  Raphael.     Such  pictures  are  usually  charao 
terized  by  considerable  attention  to  minutiae. 

53.  What  is  meant  by  the  ''aureola'  in  art  P~The  aureola 
is  a  halo  of  light  or  glory  depicted  around  divine  persons; 
the  term  is  from  auru7n,  Latin  for  gold.  When  the  aureola 
is  limited  to  the  head,  it  is  styled  a  nimbus,  Latin  for  a  cloud. 
The  nimbus  is  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  ring.  These  sym- 
bols were  originally  pagan,  and  introduced  into  Christian  art 
by  the  Byzantine  painters. 

54.  What  is  "  Fresco"  painting .?— The  Italian  word  fresco 
signifies  "  fresh  or  cool,"  and  is  applied  to  painting  on  freshly- 
laid  plaster.  The  painting  is  in  water-colors,  which  become 
incorporated  with  the  moist  plaster,  and  produce  a  vivid  and 
permanent  effect.  Fresco  painting  has  lately  been  adopted 
with  success  by  W.  Dyce  (deceased),  Maclise,  and  Herbert, 
in  adorning  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  Westminster,  with 
subjects  of  historical  interest. 

55.  What  is  " Photography?"— \\,  is  a  process  of  recent  ori. 
gin  (in  which  the  sun's  light  and  certain  chemicals  are  em- 
ployed),  for  the  purpose  of  producing  pictorial  representa. 
tions,  chiefly  small  likenesses.  The  term  is  from  the  Greek 
fhos,  light,  and  grapho,  I  write.  To  M.  Daguerre,  a  French 
painter  (died  1851),  the  honor  is  chiefly  due  of  having  been 
concerned  in  bringing  the  process  into  practical  use  about 
1839. 

56.  What  is  the  date  of  the  oldest  painted glass-wifzdows  in 
Europe?— T\\Q  oldest  existing  colored  glass-windows  are 
found  in  certain  churches  in  Germany  and  France,  and  date 
from  the  loth  to  the  12th  centuries.  Some  in  England  are  as 
old  as  the  14th  century.  The  art  of  staining  glass  for  church 
windows  has  lately  undergone  great  improvement  as  respects 
coloring,  drawing,  and  mechanical  details. 

Sculpture,  Etc. 

57.  What  are  the  Plastic  arts?— The  term  plastic  is  from 
a  Greek  word  signifying  "  to  form,"  and  is  applied  to  sculp- 
ture, pottery,  and  other  arts  by  which  rude  masses  of  mattei 
are  fashioned  into  shape. 

58.  In  what  manner  is  sculpture  practised? — Its  higher  de' 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was    the    Food    of  the   Gods. — See  page   248. 


THE  FINE  ARTS.  1 79 

partment  consists  in  carving  marble  or  some  other  kind  of 
stone  into  forms  imitative  of  the  human  figure.  Usually,  as 
a  guide,  the  artist  first  forms  a  model  in  clay  of  the  required 
figure,  and  copies  it  with  his  chisel. 

59.  Is  sculpture  an  ancient  art? — Yes;  it  was  practised  in 
ancient  times  by  the  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  Etrurians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans,  specimens  of  whose  sculpture  are  preserved  in 
museums. 

60.  By  whom  was  sctdpture  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  pe7-fec- 
tion?—By  the  Greeks,  who  are  admitted  to  have  excelled  all 
other  nations  in  ancient  and  modern  times. 

61.  To  what  special  circimistance  h  as  the  superiority  of  Greek 
sculpture  been  ascribed? — It  is  thought  to  have  been  greatly 
promoted  by  the  frequent  public  exercises  and  games,  which 
were  calculated  to  develop  the  best  proportions  in  the  humap 
form ;  also  to  a  high  sentiment  of  veneration  for  the  gods, 
and  the  wish  to  represent  them  in  the  highest  style  of  art- 
hence  the  elegant  sculpture  of  gods  and  goddesses  in  marble, 
to  place  in  groves  and  temples. 

62.  What  is  the  "  ideal"  in  art  ?■  —The  "  ideal"  is  that  perfec- 
tion which  exists  only  in  the  imagination.  The  ordinary 
human  figure  being  more  or  less  imperfect,  sculptors,  in  form- 
ing figures  of  gods  or  goddesses,  endeavored  to  avoid  every 
mortal  blemish,  and  to  give  expression  to  the  highest  concep- 
tions of  grace  and  dignity. 

63.  Has  the  "  ideal"  of  beauty,  then,  no  actual  counterpart  in 
nature? — It  has  not ;  and  yet,  by  its  harmony  and  chasteness 
of  design,  it  pleases  the  eye,  and  excites  agreeable  emotions. 
The  ideal  is  therefore  the  poetry  of  art,  and  it  was  in  this  lofty 
quality  that  the  Greek  sculptors  had  no  rivals. 

64.  When  did  Greek  sculpture  attain  a  perfect  condition  ? — In 
the  time  of  Pericles,  a  ruler  of  Athens,  and  great  patron  of 
art,  about  440  B.  c.  He  employed  Phidias  to  embellish  Athens; 
and  in  the  works  of  that  artist  sculpture  attained  to  the  sub- 
lime in  execution.  Phidias  has  been  called  the  "  sculptor  of 
the  gods." 

65.  What  were  the  grandest  works  of  Phidias  ? — The  Olym- 
pian Zeus  or  Jupiter,  at  Elis ;  and  the  Athene  or  Minerva,  in 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12. — See  page   242. 


M 


cu 


180 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


the  Parthenon  at  Athens.  The  nude  parts  of  both  figures 
were  in  ivory,  the  draperies  of  sohd  gold,  and  the  e)^es  were 
precious  stones.  These  figures  are  believed  to  have  been  the 
grandest  ever  produced  by  the  art  of  sculpture.  Phidias  died 
about  432  B.  C. 

66.  What  is  sculpture  in  "  bas-relief  f — It  is  sculpture  raised 
in  relief  to  a  moderate  degree  on  a  flat  surface ;  when  the 
sculpture  is  raised  so  as  to  project  boldly  it  is  called  alto-re 
lievo  (Italian  for  "high-relief").  Sculpture  in  alto-relievo  was 
brought  to  perfection  by  Phidias. 


Portion  of  Elgin  Marbles. 

67.  What  are  the  Elgin  Marbles?— They  are  a  collection  of 
ancient  sculptures,  chiefly  from  the  Acropolis  at  Athens, 
where,  about  1801,  they  were  obtained  at  great  cost  and 
trouble  by  Thomas,  seventh  Earl  of  Elgin,  and  transferred  to 
England.  They  were  purchased  by  government  in  1816,  and 
are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

68.  Describe  the  Elgin  marbles. — Those  most  appreciated  are 
slabs  of  marble  with  figures  in  relief,  which  constituted  the 
frieze  of  the  cella  of  the  Parthenon,  and  fifteen  of  the  me- 
topes representing  the  battle  of  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithae. 
The  figures,  mostly  equestrian,  represent  a  grand  festive  pro- 
cession in  honor  of  Minerva,  which  took  place  once  in  five 
years.     The  series  of  sculptures  were  executed  by  Phidias, 


The    Bastile  was  a    Prison   in    Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page   407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


Oi 


THE  FINE  ARTS.  jgi 

and  by  others  under  his  direction.    Casts  of  the  marbles  are 
well  known  to  students  of  art. 

69.  What  is  the  Apollo  Belvidere? — It  is  a  celebrated  Greek 
statue  of  Apollo,  which,  after  being  lost  for  ages,  was  dis- 
covered in  1503  ;  it  takes  its  present  name  from  being  placed 
in  the  Belvidere  Gallery  of  the  Vatican.  The  figure,  upwards 
of  7  feet  in  height,  is  regarded  as  embodying  the  highest  ideal 
of  manly  beauty. 

70.  What  is  the  Venus  de'  Medici?— It  is  a  statue  of  Venus, 
executed  by  an  unknown  Greek  sculptor,  which  was  found  in 
the  ruins  of  Hadrian's  villa  at  Tivoli,  and  after  being  placed 
in  the  gardens  of  the  Medici  at  Rome,  was  transferred  to  a 
collection  of  sculpture  at  Florence,  1695.  The  figure  is  small 
—only  about  4  feet  1 1  inches  high  ;  but  it  is  greatly  prized  as 
an  ideal  of  female  beauty. 

71.  Mention  other  two  celebrated  Greek  sculptures. — The  Lao- 
coon,  in  the  Vati  can,  and  the  Dying  Gladiator,  in  the  museum 
of  the  capitol  at  Rome. 

72.  Who  was  Praxiteles? — He  was  an  eminent  Greek  sculp- 
tor, who  flourished  about  360  b.  C.  Under  him  and  his  con- 
temporary, Lysippus,  sculpture  was  in  its  highest  perfection 
in  point  of  execution,  but  their  conceptions  were  less  chaste 
and  noble  than  those  of  Phidias. 

73.  What  was  the  character  of  Roman  sculpture? — It  was 
much  inferior  to  that  of  Greece;  but  it  was  cultivated  to 
some  extent  under  Augustus  and  immediately  succeeding  em- 
perors. Many  of  the  finest  sculptures  of  Greece  were  brought 
to  Rome,  where  a  number  have  been  excavated  from  ruins. 

74.  When  did  sculpture  revive  in  Italy  ?—\X  experienced  a 
revival  at  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  when  a  number 
of  artists  arose.  One  of  these  was  Lorenzo  Ghiberti,  a  Flor- 
entine, who  flourished  between  1420  and  1450. 

75.  Mention  a  great  work  of  Ghiberti. — Two  of  the  large 
bronze  doors  of  the  Baptistery  in  the  cathedral  at  Florence. 
Each  door  is  in  two  leaves — the  whole  divided  into  square 
panels,  embellished  with  scriptural  subjects  in  relief.  The  exe- 
cution of  the  firsc  "^oor  occupied  twenty-three  years.    Casts 

8a 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


182 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


of  these  "  Ghiberti  gates,"  as  they  are  called,  are  in  the  Crys- 
tal Palace  at  Sydenham. 

76.  Who  was  Benvenuto  Cellmz  ? — He  was  an  eminent  Ita- 
lian sculptor,  born  at  Florence  1500;  he  was  particularly  cele- 
brated for  his  skill  in  embossing  shields  with  classic  figures, 
— Died  1570. 

jy.  Who  was  Canovaf — Antonio  Canova  v  is  a  recent  Ita- 
lian sculptor,  born  1757,  and  noted  for  his  njiiny  fine  figures 
in  the  ancient  Greek  style.  He  practised  his  art  at  Rome.— 
Died  1822. 

78.  Who  was  Flax7nan  ?—]6hn  Flaxman  was  an  English 
sculptor  of  eminence,  born  at  York  17 SS-  He  pursued  hin 
profession  in  London,  where,  as  Professor  of  Sculpture  to  the 
Royal  Academy,  he  delivered  a  series  of  valuable  lectures  on 
art.— Died  1826. 

79.  Who  was  Thorwaldsenf—'QerieX  (or  Albert)  Thorwaldsen 
was  an  eminent  Danish  sculptor,  born  at  Copenhagen,  1770, 
His  principal  works  were  executed  in  Rome.  The  best  known 
of  his  productions  is  a  magnificent  frieze  of  great  length,  rep- 
resenting the  Triumphant  Entry  of  Alexander  into  Babylon, 


Portion  of  Triumphant  Entry  of  Alexander  into  Babylon. 

executed  to  the  order  of  Napoleon,  18 12,  as  a  decoration  foi 
an  imperial  residence  at  Rome.—  Died  1843. 

80.  What  is  the  Cera?nic  art? — It  is  the  department  of  the 
plastic  arts  which  is  concerned  with  fashioning  objects  in  clay 
— the  art  of  the  potter ;  the  term  ceramic  is  from  the  Greek 
work  keramos,  "  potter's  clay." 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793     to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought   June    i8,    1815. — See   page   368. 


THE   FINE   ARTS. 


m 


183 


Si.  B_y  whom  was  the  ccra?m'c  art  highly  cultivated  in  anciettt 
times  ? — The  art  was  brought  to  great  perfection  by  the  Etrus- 
cans or  Tusci  an  ingenious  people  who  inhabited  Etruria,  or 
the  part  of  Italy  now  called  Tuscany.  The  Etruscans  were 
at  the  hight  of  artistic  glory  about  700  B.  c,  when  the  Roman 
nation  was  only  beginning. 

82.  What  is  Majolica? — It  is  a  term  applied  to  a  certain 
kind  of  pottery,  coarse,  but  highly  colored  and  glazed,  which 
was  introduced  into  Italy  from  Majorca  about  the  12th  cen- 
tury, and  was  the  manufacture  of  the  Moors. 

83.  When  was  the  ceramic  art  revived  in  Italy? — It  was 
revived  from  about  1520  to  1560,  chiefly  by  adopting  the 
classical  figures  of  Raphael,  Julio  Romano,  and  other  emi- 
nent artists.  Italian  pottery  of  this  period  is  now  highly 
valued, 

84.  Who  was  Palissy  ? — Bernard  Palissy  was  a  French 
potter,  born  about  15 10,  who  became  famous  for  his  glass 
paintings  and  beautifully-figured  pottery.  For  a  time,  he 
carried  on  his  art  under  royal  protection  at  the  Tuileries, 
where  some  of  his  furnaces  have  lately  been  discovered. — 
Died  1590, 

85.  What  is  the  Portland  vase? — It  is  an  ancient  cinerary 
urn,  of  transparent  dark-blue  glass,  which  was  found  near 
Rome  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury ;  it  was  at  first  deposited  in  the 
Barberini  Palace,  but  vvv^s  subsequently 
transferred  to  England  in  1770,  and  was 
purchased  by  the  Duchess  of  Portland 
for  eighteen  hundred  guineas.  Hence, 
it  has  been  called  the  Portland  vase. 

86.  Where  is  now  the  Portland  vase?] 
— It  was  deposited  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, 1810,  where  it  remains,  but  is  not 
now  shown  to  the  public,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  person  having  mischiev- 
ously broken  it  with  a  stone  (1845).  Portland  Vase. 
The  vase  however,  has  been  neatly  repaired. 

Sj.    Who  was  Josiah    Wedgewood? — He    was    an    eminent 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page 


143- 


t 


184 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


English  potter,  born  1730,  who  introduce^,  a  high  style  in 
the  ceramic  art  in  England,  After  an  honorable  and  useful 
career,  he  died  1795. 

88.  What  is  engraving  ? — There  are  several  kinds  of  engrav- 
ing designed  to  represent  pictures.  Engraving  on  copper  or 
steel  plates  consists  in  cutting  lines  on  the  metal — which 
lines  being  filled  with  ink  (and  the  surface  of  the  plate  wiped 
clean),  yield  impressions  on  paper.  This  is  called  engraving 
in  intaglio,  an  Italian  term  signifying  "  to  cut  or  carve  in." 

89.  What  is  etching? — It  is  a  particular  kind  of  engraving, 
in  which  an  acid  is  employed  to  eat  out  or  corrode  lines  in  the 
metal  plate. 

90.  What  is  wood-engraving? — It  consists  in  cutting  figures 
in  relief  on  the  surface  of  a  smooth  piece  of  boxwood,  which 
figures,  when  inked  (all  the* other  parts  of  the  surface  being 
cut  away),  produce  impressions  on  paper  in  the  manner  of  a 
type. 

91.  /y  li'ood  engraving  of  old  date? — Yes;  it  began  to  be 
practised  in  Germany  and  other  countries  about  1400,  or  30 
to  40  years  before  the  invention  of  printing.  It  was  at  first 
used  for  the  purpose  of  stamping  or  printing  playing-cards 
and  figures  illustrative  of  Scripture  subjects. 

92.  When  were  playing-cards  invented? — Cards  are  of  ancient 
date  in  India  and  China,  but  differing  from  those  now  in  use. 
The  present  kind  of  playing-cards  became  known  in  Italy  in 
1379,  and  soon  afterwards  spread  over  Europe. 

93.  What  was  the  "  Biblia  Pauperu7n  .?"— It  was  a  species  of 
Bible  composed  of  pictures  from  wood-engravings,  printed 
for  the  use  of  those  who  could  not  read.  The  name,  Biblia 
Pauperum,  signifies  "  Bible  for  the  Poor."  These  picture- 
bibles  were  perhaps  the  \^xy  first  books  that  were  printed. 
Some  are  still  preserved  as  curiosities. 

94.  Who  was  Thomas  Bewick? — He  was  a  celebrated  wood- 
engraver  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  born  1753,  who  revived  this 
ingenious  art,  and  executed  engravings  of  animals  with  won- 
derful fidelity.  The  books  on  natural  history  which  he  illus- 
trated are  much  prized.    He  died  1828. 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302. 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


185 


95.  Who  was  Sir  Robert  Strange? — He  was  an  eminent 
copperplate  engraver,  born  in  Orkney  1721.  In  consequence 
of  having  engaged  in  the  rebellion  of  1745  in  Scotland,  he 
went  to  France,  whore  he  acquired  great  fame  for  his  fine 
pictorial  engravings.  Latterly,  he  returned  to  England,  was 
knighted  by  George  III.,  and  died  1792.  Strange's  engravings 
of  pictures  by  the  great  masters  are  now  highly  valued. 

A  rchitecture. 

g6.  What  is  Architecture  ?—\t  is  the  art  of  building,  and  is 
of  various  kinds — such  as  civil,  military,  and  ecclesiastical. 

97.  Is  architecture  an  ancient  art? — Yes;  it  was  practised  by 
very  ancient  nations,  as  is  seen  by  remarkable  remains  in 
Assyria,  Egypt,  and  elsewhere. 

98.  What  is  meant  by  "  Cyclopean"  architecture  ? — It  is  a 
name  ordinarily  applied  to  walls  of  great  antiquity,  built  of 
huge  blocks  of  stone  without  cement,  from  a  notion  that 
they  were  the  work  of  fabled  Cyclopes,  or  one-eyed  giants, 
mentioned  by  Homer.  Cy- 
clopean walls  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  world, 
and  antiquaries  are  at  a  loss 
to  say  by  whom  they  were 
executed.  They  date  at  least 
1,000  years  B.  c. 

99.  Fro7n  whom  did  the 
Greeks  acquire  a  knowledge  of 
architecture? — From  the  As- 
syrians and  Egyptians,  on 
whose  forms  and  styles  they 
greatly  improved. 

100.  Into  how  many  styles  is 
Grecian  architecture  divided? 
— Into  three — theDoric,Ionic, 
and  Cor  nthian.  Of  these  the  Doric  is  the  oldest  and  most 
simple,  while  the  Corinthian  is  the  most  florid  and  ornamen- 
tal. 

1 01 .  To  what  was  the  cultivation  of  Greek  architecture  due  .?- 


Doric  Ionic  Corinthian 

Styles  of  Architecture. 


o 

1   ^ 

'2 
O 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


186  THE  FINE  ARTS. 

To  the  encouragement  given  to  the  building  of  temples  f  01 
the  gods,  for  which  this  species  of  architecture  was  best  suited 
^being  elegant,  formal,  massive,  and  producing  a  grand 
effect  in  white  marble,  of  which  the  buildings  were  chiefly 
constructed. 

102.  When  was  Greek  architecture  in  perfection  ? — From 
about  650  to  300  B.  c.  The  most  noted  of  the  Greek  archi- 
tects was  Phidias,  in  the  age  of  Pericles  ;  and  the  most  mag- 
nificent of  his  structures-  was  the  Parthenon  at  Athens. 

103.  Were  the  Greeks  acquainted  with  the  principle  of  th& 
Arch  ? — It  is  thought  that  they  could  not  be  ignorant  of  the 
arch,  for  it  was  employed  by  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians  ;  but 
they  did  not  practically  adopt  it.  In  no  Grecian  building 
were  there  any  arches. 

104.  What  were  Caryatides  ? — They  were  figures  of  females 
which,  in  place  of  columns,  supported  entablatures  or  roofs 
of  buildings.  They  take  their  name  (according  to 
Greek  tradition)  from  the  women  of  Caryae,  who 
were  made  captives  after  the  battle  of  Thermopylae, 
for  having  sided  with  the  Persians ;  the  story  being 
that  figures  resembling  them  in  costume,  styled  Cary- 
atides, were,  as  an  indignity,  introduced  as  columns 
•^y  Praxiteles  and  other  Athenian  artists.  „„. 

105.  What  was  the  character  of  Roman  architecture? 
— That  of  Greek  models,  with  Tuscan  and  Composite. 
It  attained  to  great  magnificence  in  the  age  of  Augus- 
tus, but  degenerated  and  decayed  under  the  lower 

empire.  Caryatides 

106.  Did  the  Romans  adopt  the  arch  itt  architecture  ? — Yes  ; 
they  employed  it  in  their  bridges,  aqueducts  and  other  struc- 
tures, and  from  them  the  knowledge  of  it  was  communicated 
to  Western  Europe. 

107.  Who  was  Vitruvius? — He  was  a  celebrated  Roman 
writer  on  architecture,  and  flourished  about  30  B.  c.  He 
wrote  an  elaborate  work  on  architecture — De  Architecturd-— 
which  remains  an  important  authority  on  the  subject. 

108.  What  was  a  Basilica. — Basilica  is  the  Latin  form  ot 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


THE    GREAT    CATHEDRAL    BELL    OF    MOSCOW,    RUSSIA, 


CATHEDRAL  OF  ST.  BASIL,  MOSCOW,  RUSSIA. 

-        187. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859, — See  page    133. 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


187 


the  Greek  Basilike,  "  belonging  to  a  king ;"  the  term  was  ori- 
ginally applied  to  the  court  where  the  king  or  chief-magis- 
trate administered  justice. 

109.  Describe  a  Roman  basilica. — It  consisted  of  a  long  hall 
with  side-aisles ;  these  side-aisles  being  separated  from  the 
central  space  by  pillars  supporting  the  roof.  At  the  further 
end,  opposite  the  entrance,  was  a  raised  platform,  with  seats 
for  the  judges,  to  accommodate  which  there  was  sometimes 
a  rounded  space  projecting  from  the  end,  called  the  apse. 

1 10.  What  did  the  Roman  basilicas  generally  become  ? — On  the 
introduction  of  Christianity,  they  were  generally  trans- 
formed into  churches.  The  apse  became  the  choir  or  site  of 
the  altar,  and  the  central  open  space  forthe  worshippers  was 
called  the  nave,  a  term  taken  from  navis,  Latin  for  a  ship. 
Thus,  the  rudimentary  type  of  modern  cathedrals  was  the 
Roman  basilica,  or  court  of  justice. 

111.  What  were  the  kinds  of  architecture  which  followed  the 
Greek  and  Romati? — The  Byzantine,  Saracenic,  Gothic,  Ren- 
aissance, and  other  kinds,  according  to  national  tastes. 

112.  Me  fit  ion  a  characteristic  of  By zajitine  art. — One  of  its 
main  peculiarities  was  an  adaptation  to  Christian,  as  opposed 
to  heathen,  wants ;  for  example,  the  Byzantine  architects, 
about  the  commencement  of  the  6th  century,  began  to  con- 
struct churches  expressly  for  Christian  worship.  These 
buildings  are  characterized  by  the  use  of  the  dome  in  their 
roofs,  and  by  splendid  mosaic  work. 

113.  Mention  a  grand  specimen  of  Byzantifie  architecture. — 
The  church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  completed  537 
A.  D.  St.  Mark's  at  Venice,  a  creation  of  the  middle  ages,  is 
also  considered  a  pure  specimen. 

1 14.  Mention  a  characteristic  of  Saracenic  architecture. — A 
remarkable  feature  consists  in  arches  resembling  a  horse- 
shoe, or  wider  above  than  below.  The  Saracenic  st}  le  is  in- 
variably used  in  Mohammedan  mosques,  and  a  beautiful  ex- 
ample is  found  in  the  Alhambra,  the  palace-fortress  of  the 
Moors  in  Granada. 

115.  What  is  Gothic  Architecture? — Under  this  title  are  com' 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist. — See  page  65. 


n 


O 


188 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


prised  the  various   styles  of  architecture  which  prevailed  in 

Western  Europe  during  the  middle   ages  till  the   revival  of 

classic  architecture  in  the  i6th  century.     In 

the  Gothic  was  perfected  the  structure  of  the 

cathedral,  which  was  usually  shaped  like   a 

cross. 

116.  Describe  the  parts  in  a  Gothic  cathedral. 
—The  central  part  forming  the  limb  of  the|  north 
cross,  was  the  nave,  the' projecting  parts  at 
the  sides  were  the  transepts,  and  the  exten- 
sion of  the  nave  beyond  the  transepts  formed 
the  choir  or  chancel. 

117.  What  was  the  form  of  the  arch  in  Gothic 
architecture? — Till  about  11 50 the  semicircular 
form  (or  Norman  style)  was  used;  thereafter 
the  arch  was  pointed,  but  in  different  degrees. 
The  early  English  Gothic  is  called  the  first 
pointed  style,  of  which  the  most  perfect  example  is  Salisbury 
Cathedral,  finished  about  1260. 


Gothic  Cathedral, 
Winchester. 


118.  Mention  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  Nor jn an  variety 
of  the  Gothic. — The  leading  feature  was  the  rounded  arch. 
From  a  general  misapprehension,  this  style  has  sometimes  been 
called  the  Saxon.  It  is  now  known  that  such  specimens  as  ex- 
isted among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  previous  to  the  Conquest, 
were  copied  from  designs  in  Normandy. 

119.  What  is  Elizabethan  architecture  ? — It  is  a  mixed  style 
which  sprung  upon  the  decline  of  Gothic  architecture.  It  is 
chiefly  exemplified  in  mansions  of  the  nobility  erected  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I.,  and  is  characterized  by  oriel 
windows,  pointed  gables,  and  fanciful  spires.  The  Tudor  style 
preceded  the  Elizabethan. 

120.  What  was  the  Renaissance  ? — The  French  term  Renais- 
sance signifies  a  new  birth  or  renewal,  and  is  applied  to  the 
revival  of  art  and  literature  in  Italy  and  France  in  the  i6th 
century. 

121.  What  was  characteristic  of  Renaissance  architecture  ? — 
A  renewal  of  the  Roman  or  classical  style  down  to  the  minutest 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles. — See  page  47. 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


189 


details.    To  the  Renaissance  may  be  ascribed  the  best  of  our 
modern  street  architecture  ;  for  instance,  that  of  Paris. 

122.  Who  was  Palladtof — He  was  an  eminent  Italian  archi- 
tect (born  1 518,  died  in  1580),  who  after  studying  the  works  of 
Vitruvius,  was  largely  employed  in  erecting  palaces  for  the 
nobility  at  Vicenza,  according  to  the  style  of  the  Renais- 
sance. What  is  now  called  the  Italian  style  of  architecture, 
adopted  for  handsome  buildings  in  cities,  is  based  on  the  finer 
compositions  of  Palladio,  Alberti,  and  others. 

123.  What  is  the  Scottish  style  of  architecture .?— It  is  a  fanci- 
ful style  adapted  for  countr)^  mansions,  and  dates  from  the 
1 5th  and  i6th  centuries  ;  its  characteristics  are  sharp  roofs  and 
gables  with  picturesque  flanking  turrets ;  the  style  evidently 
marks  a  transition  from  the  feudal  castle  to  the  modern  fam- 
ily residence. 

124.  Who  was  Inigo  Jones? — He  was  an  eminent  English 
architect,  who  was  employed  in  various  undertakings  by 
James  I.  His  best  known  work  is  the  Banqueting  House, 
Whitehall.  Jones  has  been  called  the  English  Palladio  ;  he 
died  at  an  advanced  age,  1653. 

125.  Who  was  Sir  Christopher  Wren  ? — He  was  the  greatest 
of  all  the  English  architects,  and  was  born  in  1632.  His 
grandest  work  was  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  begun  1675. 
Wren  was,  besides,  the  architect  of  many  of  the  fine  churches 
in  London.  He  died  1723  at  the  advanced  age  of  91,  and  was 
honored  with  a  public  funeral  in  St.  Paul's. 

1 26.  What  is  the  inscription  on  the  tomb  of  Sir  Christopher 
Wreii? — It   is,  Si  Monufnentum  quceris,  circumspice — If    you 

wish  to  see  his  monument,  look  around. 

127.  Who  was  Sir  William  Chambers? — He  was  an  eminent 
English  architect  in  the  i8th  century  ;  his  best  work  is  Somer- 
set House — a  noble  specimen  of  modern  architecture  ;  he 
wrote  a  Treatise  on  Civil  Architecture,  which  is  a  text-book 
on  the  subject. — Died  1796. 

128.  Who  was  John  Rennie? — He  was  an  eminent  engineer; 
born,  the  son  of  a  farmer  at  Phantassie,  East  Lothian,  1761. 
Rennie  was  particularly  distinguished  for  his  grand  bridges, 
two  of  which  across  the  Thames,  were  Waterloo  Bridge,  fin- 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728.— See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were    a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors.  —  See    page    243. 


190 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


ished  1817,  and  London  Bridge,  opened  in  1831.  Canova  con^ 
sidered  Waterloo  Bridge  to  be  the  finest  in  the  world  ;  and 
M.  Dupin  calls  it  "a  colossal  monument  worthy  of  Sesostris 
and  the  Caesars."     Rennie  died  1821. 

129.  What  is  a  '' ground  plan  f — It  is  a  horizontal  section 
of  a  building  as  it  is  to  be  shaped  on  the  ground.  The  "  ele- 
vation" represents  the  exterior  front  of  a  building  as  it  is  to 
appear  to  the  eye  when  completed. 

130.  Mention  some  of  the  parts  of  a  building? — Rybats,  the 
stones  composing  the  sides  of  doors  and  windows  ;  plinth,  the 


Pediment  of  the  Temple  of  ^gina  (restored). 

square  base  for  a  column  or  wall ;  architrave,  the  fiat  stretch 
of  stone  immediately  over  columns,  and  extending  from  one 
to  another;  Va^  frieze,  the  fiat  stone  over  the  architrave  ;  the 
entablature Qovcvi^xis^^  the  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice  ;  pedi- 
ment, the  triangular  form  over  the  entablature.  The  triangu- 
lar space  within  the  pediment  is  the  tympanum.  In  Greek 
buildings,  the  tympanum  was  usually  enriched  with  sculp- 
tured figures. 

131.  Is  Grecian  architecture  adapted  for  modern  housebuild- 
ing?— No;  it  is  too  precise  and  formal,  and  cannot  endure 
the  slightest  departure  from  classic  models.  Hence  the  in- 
troduction of  more  pliant  styles  in  recent  times. 

132.  Was  music  known  to  the  ancients? — Yes  ;  the  Egyptians, 
Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans  had  each  a  kind  of  music, 
adapted  for  the  voice,  or  for  stringed  and  wind  instruments. 

133.  What  musical  instruments  had  the  Hebrews  ? — We  learn 
from  the  Scriptures  that  they  had  trumpets,  shawms,  harps, 
and  cymbals;  the  shawm  was  a  wind  instrument  resembling  a 
modern  clarionet. 

134.  What  is  the  Gregorian  Chant? — It  is  the  name  given  to 


Croesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing  was    Invented    in    1437,   by  John   Guttenberg.— See   page  305. 


tHE  FINE  ARTS. 


191 


certain  choral  melodies  introduced  into  the  service  of  the 
early  Christian  church  by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  who 
flourished  towards  the  end  of  the  6th  century.  In  this  and 
other  respects  Gregory  was  the  first  great  improver  of  church- 
music. 

135.  What  zs  the  "Dies  IrcB?" — It  is  a  celebrated  Latin  hymn, 
sung  in  the  services  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  is 
generally  known  by  the  first  two  words  Dies  IrcSy  signifying 
"  Day  of  wrath."  It  is  of  medieval  composition,  and  its 
author  is  doubtful ;  though  Thomas  of  Celano  (died  1255) 
has  probably  the  best  claim  to  the  honor. 

136.  Describe  the  nattire  of  the  "Dies  Irce." — It  is  a  hymn  or 
poem  on  the  Last  Judgment ;  and  on  account  of  the  solemn 
grandeur  of  the  ideas  which  it  brings  before  the  mind,  and 
emotions  it  is  fitted  to  excite,  it  is  well  adapted  for  the  musical 
part  of  divine  service. 

137.  What  is  the  "Stabat  Mater?" — It  is  a  veiy  sublime 
Latin  hymn,  which  is  sung  in  the  services  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  Holy- Week.  The  author  is  unknown, 
but  many  modern  musical  composers  have  employed  their 
talents  on  this  beautiful  piece. 

138.  Why  has  the  hymn  "  Stabat  Mater"  been  so  called?^ 
Because  it  begins  with  these  two  words — stabat,  stood,  and 
mater,  mother.     The  following  are  the  first  three  lines — 

"  Stabat  mater  dolorosa, 
Juxta  crucem  lachrymosa, 
Dum  pendebat  films"— 

which  may  be  translated,  "  The  aflJlicted  and  weeping  mother 
stood  by  the  cross  on  which  was  hanging  her  son." 

139.  Who  have  been  the  great  musical  composers  of  modern 
times? — They  have  been  principally  Germans— Bach,  Handel, 
Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Weber,  and  others.  Handel, 
born  1684,  spent  most  of  his  life  in  England,  and  was  perhaps 
the  greatest  of  all  musical  composers  ;  his  most  famous  com- 
positions are  Israel  in  Egypt  and  the  Messiah. — Died- 1759. 

140.  What  is  an  Oratorio? — It  is  a  composition  of  sacred 
music ;  the  term  being  from  the  Latin  word  oratorium,  an 
oratory  or  cell  for  prayer — the  place  where  such  sacred  corn- 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49 


^ 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821 — See  page  411. 


192  THE  FINE  ARTS. 

positions  were  originally  performed.  The  music  consists  ol 
recitatives,  airs,  duets,  trios,  quartettes,  and  choruses,  accom- 
panied with  instruments.  Handel's  Israel  and  Messiah,  Men- 
delssohn's Elijah  and  St.  Paul,  and  Haydn's  Creation  are  the 
grandest  specimens  of  this  species  of  composition. 

141.  What  is  an  Italian  "  Opera?" — It  is  a  musical  drama 
—a  play  sung  throughout  by  the  actors ;  the  music  in  such 
compositions  is  designed  to  evoke  emotions  characteristic  of 
the  different  parts — sorrow,  joy,  anger  and  other  sentiments, 
expressed  in  musical  sounds. 

142.  What  cojnposers  are  at  the  head  of  the  Italian  opera? — 
Rossini  (born  1792),  who  wrote  Semir amide,  Guillaume  Tell, 
and  II  Barbiere  di  Seviglia  ;  Bellini  (died  1835),  the  composer 
of  Norma,  I  Puritani,  and  La  Sonnambula ;  and  Donizetti 
and  Verdi. 

143.  Who  was  Mendelssohn? — Felix  Mendelssohn  (born 
1809,  died  1847),  was  a  young  German  musical  composer  of 
great  eminence  ;  besides  his  splendid  sonatas  and  concertos, 
he  composed  some  fine  tunes  for  lyrics — the  best  known  of 
these  being  the  air,  O  wert  thou  in  the  Cauld Blast,  adapted  to 
the  words  of  Robert  Burns. 

144.  Who  was  Meyerbeer  ? — He  was  an  eminent  German  mus- 
ical composer,  born  1794.  His  best  known  operas  are  the 
Huguenots,  Robert  le  Diable,  the  Prophete,  and  LAfricaine. — 
Died  1864. 

145.  What  is  a  Pibroch  ? — It  is  a  piece  played  on  the  High- 
land bagpipe  ;  a  pibroch  illustrative  of  a  battle  is  supposed  to 
embrace  the  cries  of  defiance,  the  onset,  the  shouts  of  victory, 
and  the  wail  for  the  dead  and  dying. 

146.  What  is  an  ''Anthem?"— K  species  of  composition 
peculiarly  English,  and  introduced  into  the  church  after  the 
Reformation.  The  words  are  taken  from  Scripture,  and  the 
music  may  be  for  solo,  sol,  or  chorus,  or  a  combination.  The 
term  anthem  is  sometimes  loosely  applied  to  the  national 
hymn,  God  Save  the  Queen, 

147.  Who  was  the  author  of  the  English  national  anthein  ? 
The  author  of  the  words  of  God  Save  the  King  (or  Queen) 
was  Dr.  Henry  Carey,  born  in  London  about  1696,  and   died 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


193 


1743.  The  composition  was  in  honor  of  a  birthday  of  George 
II.  The  words  of  the  anthem  have  undergone  some  changes 
since.    The  music  was  by  Dr.  John  Bull. 

148.  What  is  Rule  Britannia  ? — It  is  the  name  of  a  noble 
national  hymn,  the  words  of  which  first  appeared  (1740)  in 
the  masque  of  Alfred,  the  joint  production  of  James  Thom- 
son, author  of  The  Seasons,  and  David  Mallet.  Whether 
Thomson  or  Mallet  was  the  author,  is  not  quite  settled.  The 
music  is  by  Dr.  Arne,  an  eminent  English  musical  composer 
(died  1778). 

149.  What  is  Yankee  Doodle  ? — That  is  the  name  of  an  air, 
adopted  as  a  national  tune  by  the  United  States.  The  words 
are  mere  doggerel.  Yankee  Doodle  was  composed  by  Dr. 
Shackburg,  a  physician  in  the  British  army  in  America,  about 
1755,  and  palmed  off  by  him  as  a  celebrated  air  on  a  body  of 
American  militia. 

150.  What  is  the  Marseillaise? — It  is  a  French  revolution- 
ary song  or  hymn,  the  words  and  music  of  which  were  com- 
posed by  Rouget  de  Lisle,  an  officer  of  artillery  at  Stras- 
bourg, in  1792.  In  July  that  year  it  was  introduced  into 
Paris,  when  the  young  men  of  Marseilles,  were  summoned  to 
the  capital ;  taking  its  name  from  them,  it  became  exceed- 
ingly popular  among  all  classes  of  revolutionists. 

151.  What  is  the  Ranz  des  V aches? — It  is  the  French  name 
of  a  class  of  wild  and  simple  airs,  played  on  the  kuh-horn, 
and  sung  by  the  herdsmen  in  the  Alpine  parts  of  Switzerland, 
in  driving  the  cattle  to  pasture. 

152.  What  is  meant  by  "  national  mtisic?'' — It  is  that  which 
grows  up  with  certain  national  peculiarities  of  musical  struc- 
ture ;  thus  the  Italians,  Germans,  French,  .'-ish,  Scots,  and 
Welsh,  have  each  a  distinct  music.  The  English,  however, 
scarcely  possess  a  music  distinguishable  by  peculiar  national 
qualities. 

153.  What  is  the  nature  of  Scottish  music? — It  is  simple, 
partly  plaintive,  and  partly  lively,  adapted  for  lyrical  composi- 
tions, and  characterized  by  the  infrequent  use  of  semitones. 
Many  of  the  Scottish  airs  are  several  centuries  old ;  but  few 
of  their  authors  are  known.    With  from  time  to  time   new 

9 


■  o 


CO 


The   Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503.— See  page  181. 


194  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE. 

words,  they  form  a  rich  national  inheritance  enjoyed  freely  by 
successive  generations. 


THE  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION- 
PRUDENCE. 


-JURIS- 


1 .  What  is  the  nature  of  the  British  government  ? — It  is  a  lim- 
ited monarchy,  with  a  hereditary  sovereign,  who  reigns  ac- 
cording to  certain  restrictions  prescribed  by  the  constitu- 
tion. In  its  present  form,  the  constitution  dates  from  the 
Revolution  Settlement,  1689. 

2.  What  is  the  "  Cabinet  ?" — It  consists  of  a  number  of  min- 
isters, who  are  intrusted  by  the  sovereign  with  the  executive 
part  of  the  government — the  sovereign  (whether  king  or 
queen)  ruling  only  through  them  and  by  their  advice.  All 
executive  acts  proceed  in  the  name  of  the  sovereign. 

3.  What  regulates  the  sovereign  in  the  choice  of  ministers? — 
The  sovereign  selects  or  employs  only  such  statesmen  to  act 
as  ministers  as  possess  the  confidence  of  the  two  houses  of 
parliament.  Usually,  the  process  of  selection  is  left  to  one 
termed  prime  minister,  and  no  one  can  long  act  as  prime 
minister  who  cannot  ensure  majorities  in  parliament  to  carry 
government  measures. 

4.  Does  government,  then,  rest  substantially  with  the  Houses  of 
Parliament?— Vi  does;  and  chiefly  with  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, which  originates  and  finally  determines  all  measures 
for  granting  supplies  of  money  to  carry  on  public  affairs. 

5.  What  ensue'  when  the  prime  minister  fails  to  secure  ma- 
jorities in  voting  money  bills  or  other  important  measures  ? — 
Either  the  ministry  must  be  dismissed,  and  a  new  ministry 
appointed,  or  the  sovereign  must  dissolve  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  cause  a  new  one  to  be  elected. 

6.  What  is  the  Privy  Council? — It  is  an  assembly  of  advisers 
Dn  matters  of  state  appointed  by  the  sovereign,  and  is  com- 
posed principally  of  the  cabinet  ministers,  along  with  certain 
judges,  members  of  the  nobility,  and  commoners.      Immedi- 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Gods. — See  page   248. 


BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE.    195 

ately  on  the  decease  of  the  sovereign,  the  Privy  Council  pro- 
claims the  successor. 

7.  What  are  "  orders  in  council?" — They  are  orders  having 
the  effect  of  law,  which  the  Privy  Council  is  authorized  by 
statute  to  issue  in  cases  of  national  emergency. 

8.  What  is  the  Nobility  f — The  nobility  and  peerage  are  a 
body  of  individuals  raised  by  rank,  dignity,  and  title,  above 
the  mass  of  the  people  or  commoners. 

9.  In  whom  lies  the  right  of  creating  peers .?-  -The  right  of 
creating  peers  is  in  the  sovereign,  who  is  "  the  fountain  of 
honor"  in  the  constitution  ;  but  in  this,  as  in  other  matters, 
the  sovereign  acts  only  by  the  advice  of  the  ministry. 

10.  O71  what  ground  are  persons  raised  to  the  peerage? — They 
are  raised  to  the  peerage  for  distinguished  public  services. 
The  aristocracy,  therefore,  is  constantly  receiving  accessions 
from  the  people,  while  the  people  are  as  constantly  absorbing 
back  into  their  ranks  the  junior  branches  of  the  nobility  and 
their  descendants. 

11.  How  many  ranks  are  there  in  the  peerage? — Five  ;  namely, 
Baron,  Viscount,  Earl,  Marquis,  and  Duke,  which  is  the 
highest.  Peers  are  raised  from  lower  to  higher  ranks — still, 
however,  retaining  the  lower  titles  and  dignities. 

\2.  Is  the  peerage  hereditary  ? — Yes;  rank  and  title,  along 
with  family  landed  possessions,  are  inherited  by  the  eldest 
surviving  son  according  to  the  rule  of  primogeniture — a  terra 
equivalent  to  "  first  born" — unless  there  be  some  special  pro- 
vision to  the  contrary. 

13.  Mention  an  effect  of  primogeniture? — One  of  its  effects 
is  to  give  great  stability  to  certain  families  of  wealth  and 
distinction,  who  from  generation  to  generation  impart  the 
quality  of  steadiness  and  permanence  to  the  national  insti- 
tutions. 

14.  Do  the  younger  children  of  a  peer  enjoy  titles  by  inherit' 
ance  ? — They  do  not ;  in  law,  they  are  commoners  ;  but 
usuallv  they  enjoy  certain  titles  by  courtesy.  Thus,  the  eld- 
est son  of  a  duke  is  called  by  his  father's  second  title,  until 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242 


0} 


196  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE, 

he  succeeds  to  the  family  honor,  and  the  other  sons  are 
called  Lords  by  courtesy. 

1 5.  What  are  the  national  distinctions  in  the  peerage  ? — There 
are  English,  Scotch,  and  Irish  peers,  also  peers  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  peers  of  the  United  Kingdom.  These  distinctions 
arise  out  of  historical  circumstances,  and  have  no  relation  to 
place  of  birth ;  for  example,  an  Englishman  or  Scotchman 
may  be  an  Irish  peer,  and  an  Irishman  may  be  a  peer  of 
Great  Britain. 

16.  Have  these  various  peers  equal  parliamentary  privileges  ? 
— No  ;  English  peers,  and  peers  of  Great  Britain  and  of  the 
United  Kingdom  have  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The 
Scotch  peers  elect  sixteen  of  their  number  to  the  House  of 
Lords  ;  and  a  new  election  of  them  takes  place  every  parlia- 
ment. The  Irish  peers  elect  twenty-eight  of  their  number 
to  the  House  of  Lords,  and  they  sit  for  life. 

17.  Can  peers  be  representatives  in  the  House  of  Commons? — 
Only  members  of  the  peerage  of  Ireland  can  be  so  ;  besides 
being  represented  in  the  Lords,  they  can  be  representatives 
for  English  boroughs  or  counties  in  the  Commons.  For  ex- 
ample, Lord  Palmerston,  who  belonged  to  the  peerage  of 
Ireland,  sat  in  the  Commons  for  an  English  borough.  Sons 
of  noblemen  with  courtesy  titles  are  eligible  as  members  of 
the  House  of  Commons. 

18.  What  is  the  number  of  members  in  the  House  of  Commons? 
— The  number  is  658,  who  are  partly  elected  by  counties  and 
partly  by  boroughs ;  several  are  also  elected  by  universities. 
No  one  can  vote  at  elections  unless  his  name  has  been  pre- 
viously placed  on  a  public  register. 

19.  What  is  the  duration  of  parliament  ? — The  existence  of 
a  parliament  is  limited  to  seven  years ;  but  few  parliaments 
last  so  long.  A  session  of  parliament  is  the  period  it  sits 
annually,  and  ordinarily  extends  from  February  till  July. 

20.  What  is  the  number  of  members  in  the  House  of  Lords  ?—■ 
The  number  is  at  present  454,  consisting  of  certain  royal 
princes,  peers  who  enjoy  the  right  by  heritage,  the  Scotch 
md  Irish  representative  peers,  and  certain  lords  spiritual. 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


•& 


BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE.    1^7 

21.  Are  there  not  several  Scotch  peers  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
besides  the  sixteen  representative  peers  f — Yes  ;  but  only  because 
they  are  at  the  same  time  peers  of  England,  Great  Britain,  or 
the  United  Kingdom.  For  exkmple,  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch 
sits  in  the  Lords  as  Earl  of  Doncaster,  in  the  peerage  of 
England. 

22.  What  are  lords  spiritual? — They  are  the  archbishops 
and  bishops  of  the  Church  of  England  and  Ireland.  These 
may  be  described  as  an  elective  nobility,  though  they  are  not 
absolutely  peers. 

23.  What  is  the  number  of  lords  spiritual  in  the  House  of 
Lords? — The  number  is  30,  consisting  of  2  English  arch-^ 
bishops,  24  English  bishops,  i  representative  Irish  archbishop, 
and  3  representative  Irish  bishops.  The  Bishop  of  Sodor 
and  Man  has  no  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  not  being  reck- 
oned one  of  the  English  bishops. 

24.  Why  is  the  Bishop  of  the  Isle  of  Man  called  "  Bishop  of 
Sodor  and  Man?" — The  term  Sodor  is  an  abbreviation  of 
Soderenses,  the  Latinized  form  of  Sudoreys,  the  bishopric  of 
which  was  once  associated  with  that  of  Man.  These  Sudor- 
eys were  the  Hebrides,  or  Southern  Islands — so  called  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  Orkney  or  Northern  Islands.  As  the 
Hebrides  are  now  included  in  the  ecclesiastical  system  of 
Scotland,  the  term  Sodor,  as  far  as  regards  its  original  mean- 
ing, is  merely  titular. 

25.  Who  act  as  chairmen  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament  ? — Th? 
Lord  Chancellor  (who  by  present  usage  must  have  been  ? 
distinguished  lawyer)  presides  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The 
House  of  Commons  elects  one  of  its  members  to  preside,  and 
he  is  styled  "  the  Speaker." 

26.  What  is  meant  by  the'*  woolsack  ?" — The  woolsack  is  the 
seat  of  the  Lord  Chancellor  in  the  House  of  Lords ;  it  con- 
sists of  a  large  bag  of  wool  covered  with  red  cloth,  but 
though  fashioned  like  a  seat,  is  without  back  or  arms.  The 
woolsack  is  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  circumstance 
of  wool  being  anciently  a  staple  article  of  produce  in  Eng- 
land. 

27.  How  does  a  proposed  measure  become  law? — The  measure 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian   Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


Iq8   BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE, 

is  first  in  the  form  of  a  "  bill,"  which  must  pass  or  be  sanc- 
tioned by  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  also  receive 
the  royal  assent,  before  it  becomes  law.  When  so  passed  and 
assented  to,  the  measure  is  called  "  an  Act  of  Parliament,"  or 
statute. 

28.  What  are  the  means  provided  by  the  constitution  for  a 
redress  of  grievances? — The  constitution  gives  the  right  of 
petitioning  parliament  for  the  abolition  or  amendment  of  any 
objectionable  law — which  right  includes  the  important  privi- 
lege of  assembling  peacefully  to  consider  and  draw  up  the 
petition.  This  is  deemed  one  of  the  great  bulwarks  of  civil 
liberty  in  the  British  dominions. 

29.  Does  government  interfere  in  elections  ? — No ;  govern- 
ment, and  all  government  officials  whatsoever,  usually  abstain 
from  interfering  in  elections,  by  which  great  liberty  of  action 
ensues.  This  is  one  of  the  most  estimable  points  in  the  con- 
stitution. Government  similarly  abstains  from  attempts  to 
regulate  public  opinion  on  matters  of  general  policy — a  cir- 
cumstance which  contrasts  favorably  with  the  practices  that 
prevail  in  some  continental  countries. 

30.  Is  monarchy  esteemed  as  a  national  institution  ? — It  is  ex- 
ceedingly so,  for  several  considerations — i.  Its  great  anti- 
quity and  identification  with  national  traditions  ;  2.  A  know- 
ledge of  the  disasters  and  contentions  which  ensued  on  its 
temporary  overthrow  in  1649 ;  3.  A  belief  that,  as  now  con- 
stitutionally established,  it  is  best  adapted  to  secure  public 
liberty,  along  with  exemption  from  the  exasperations  and 
conflicts  of  party;  and,  4.  A  deep-seated  sentiment  of  loyalty 
and  affectionate  regard  fpr  the  sovereign  who  now  occupies 
the  throne. 

31.  What  is  a  "Coronation?" — It  is  a  ceremony  in  which 
the  sovereign  is  solemnly  invested  with  a  crown,  significant 
of  royal  dignity  and  authority. 

32.  How  is  the  term,  "  the  crown"  figuratively  employed? — • 
The  term  is  often  used  to  signify  the  royal  authority.  Thus, 
people  speak  of  "crown  lawyers" — meaning  lawyers  who  act 
for  the  sovereign — and  also  of  "  appointments  by  the  crown." 

33.  What  is  the  scale  of  precedence? — It  is  a  scale  established 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought   June    i8,    1815. — See   page   368. 


BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE.    19^ 

by  the  statutes  and  ancient  usage  determining  the  social  posi- 
tion of  every  individual  from  the  sovereign  downwards — an 
arrangement  by  which  all  contests  as  to  precedence  are 
avoided  on  the  occasion  of  state  or  public  ceremonials.  The 
number  of  ranks  in  the  scale  of  precedence  is  upwards  of  a 
hundred ;  in  this  scale  wealth  is  not  reckoned. 

34.  Who  are  entitled  to  the  distinction  of  Esquire  ? — The  sons 
of  the  nobility  and  their  eldest  sons,  the  eldest  sons  of  knights 
and  their  eldest  sons,  judges,  justices  of  peace,  commissioned 
officers,  barristers,  persons  so  styled  in  writs  of  the  crown, 
and  some  others.  "  Esquire"  has  lately  been  so  much  abused 
that  it  has  lost  its  distinctive  value.  The  term  is  from  the 
French  escuyer,  a  shield-bearer  (Lat.  scutum,  a  shield),  and  was 
applied  to  the  armor-bearer  of  a  knight. 

35.  What  is  the  constitution  of  the  Church  of  England?-^ 
It  is  a  Protestant  Episcopacy,  comprehending  three  orders 
of  clergy — bishops,  priests,  and  deacons;  the  whole  under 
the  Queen  as  "  head  of  the  church."  The  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  is  styled  Primate  of  all  England,  and  has  the 
privilege  of  placing  the  crown  on  the  head  of  the  sovereign 
at  coronations. 

36.  How  is  the  Church  of  England  supported? — It  is  estab- 
lished by  law  as  the  religion  of  the  state,  and  is  supported  by 
a  variety  of  endowments,  for  the  most  part  of  old  date. 

37.  What  is  a  "  cong^  d ^lire  ?" — It  is  an  old  French  phrase, 
signifying  "  leave  or  permission  to  elect."  It  is  the  name 
given  in  England  to  a  warrant  from  the  sovereign,  permitting 
the  dean  and  chapter  of  a  cathedral  to  elect  a  bishop  to  a 
vacant  see.  The  conge  d'^lire,  however,  is  accompanied  with 
a  missive,  pointing  out  who  should  be  elected,  which  it  is 
illegal  to  disregard. 

38.  What  is  "  Convocation"  as  applied  to  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land?— Convocation  is  the  name  given  to  an  assembly  of  the 
clergy,  which  occasionally  meets  to  discuss  ecclesiastical 
questions.  This  meeting,  however,  possesses  no  power  of 
legislation  ;  for  the  Church  is  entirely  regulated  by  parlia- 
ment, while  its  discipline  belongs  to  a  class  of  tribunals  called 
the  ecclesiastical  courts. 


M 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


200  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE. 

39.  What  is  meant  by  ''Holy  Orders?" — It  is  a  phrase  in  use 
among  members  of  the  Church  of  Rome  and  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  denotes  entrance  into  the  order  of  the  priesthood. 
Holy  orders  are  conferred  by  a  solemn  act  of  ordination  b)/- 
bishops,  and  invest  the  recipient  with  a  sacred  character  dis- 
tinctly apart  from  the  laity. 

40.  Is  the  sacred  character  of  Holy  Orders  indelible? — It  is  so 
in  ordinary  circumstances.  In  the  Church  of  Rome,  the  pope 
has  the  power  of  removing  the  sacred  character  of  a  priest 
and  restoring  him  to  the  laity  ;  in  the  Church  of  England,  an 
act  of  parliament  would  be  required  to  do  so.  Accordingly 
persons  who  have  entered  holy  orders  in  England  are  in  point 
of  law  ineligible  for  various  civil  offices,  including  that  of  a 
representative  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

41.  What  is  meant  by  ''benefit  of  clergy  ?" — It  is  an  expres- 
sion referring  to  a  former  state  of  the  law  in  England,  when 
a  clergyman  had  the  benefit  of  being  exempted  from  prosecu- 
tion for  alleged  crimes  and  offences  before  any-civil  tribunal. 
In  course  of  time,  laymen  who  could  read  claimed  and  were 
allowed  the  like  privilege.  "  Benefit  of  clergy"  was  finally 
abolished  in  the  reign  of  George  IV. 

42.  What  is  the  constitution  of  the  Church  of  Scotland? — It 
is  a  Protestant  Presbyterianism,  established  in  place  of  Epis- 
copacy in  1690;  but  with  certain  modifications,  it  was  the 
form  of  Protestantism  instituted  at  the  Reformation  in  Scot- 
land. Its  ministers  are  equal  in  rank,  and  are  assisted  in 
maintaining  church-discipline  by  lay-elders. 

43.  How  is  the  Church  of  Scotland  supported? — It  is,  like  the 
Church  of  England,  maintained  by  endowments,  mostly  of 
old  date — certain  landowners  in  each  parish  being  under  a 
legal  obligation  to  pay  a  specified  stipend  to  the  minister  out 
of  church-property  in  their  possession. 

44.  What  is  the  General  Assembly?— Vi  is  the  highest  church- 
court  in  Scotland,  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  repre- 
sentative ministers  and  elders,  and  meets  once  a  year  in  Edin-. 
burgh.  The  crown  appoints  a  president,  called  a  Royal  Com- 
missioner, but  he  takes  no  part  in  the  proceedings ;  the  act- 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long.— See    page    302. 


BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE.  20I 

ing  president  is  one  of  the  representative  ministers,  elected 
by  votes  of  the  members,  and  styled  Moderator. 

45.  What  are  Dissenters? — They  are  bodies  of  Christians 
who  dissent  from  the  form  of  government  and  doctrines  of 
an  Established  Church.  All  dissenters,  of  whatever  denomi- 
nation, enjoy  entire  freedom  of  opinion,  and  conduct  divine 
service  according  to  the  forms  of  which  they  approve. 

46.  What  are  Seceders? — They  are  certain  religious  bodies 
in  Scotland  who  have  seceded  or  separated  from  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  and  are  legally  in  the  position  of  dissenters. 
The  chief  seceding  body  is  the  United  Presbyterian,  which 
has  been  formed  by  the  amalgamation  of  different  sects  at 
different  times.  The  Free  Church,  constituted  in  1843,  declines 
in  theory  to  consider  itself  a  "  seceding"  body — designating 
the  event  of  1843  not  a  secession  but  a  disruption. 

47.  What  is  Erastianism  ? — It  is  a  term  of  reproach,  signi- 
fying the  condition  of  a  church  which  is  under  the  control  of 
the  state.  It  is  derived  from  Thomas  Erastus,  a  learned  Swiss 
theologian  (died  1583),  whose  writings  on  this  subject,  how- 
ever, have  been  greatly  misapprehended. 

48.  What  is  international  law  ? — It  is  a  generally  understood 
body  of  principles  which  regulate  the  intercourse  between 
different  states,  and  have  been  expounded  by  various  writers 

49.  Mention  some  authorities  in  international  law. — Puffen- 
dorf,  Grotius,  and  Vattel  are  the  principal ;  Vattel,  a  native  of 
Neufchatel  (died  1767),  is  the  chief  authority ;  his  famed  work 
on  the  subject  is  his  Droit  des  Gens  (Law  of  Nations). 

50.  What  is  a  ''casus  belli?" — It  is  an  act  of  hostility  on  the 
part  of  one  nation  against  another,  sufficient  to  give  occasion 
for  a  proclamation  of  war. 

51.  What  are  belligerents  ?—ThtY  are  states  which  are 
carrying  on  war  against  each  other,  according  to  the  ordinary 
recognized  principles  of  warfare ;  the  term  is  from  the  Latin 
belligero,  I  wage  war. 

52.  What  is  the  right  of  blockade .?— It  is  a  right  possessed 
by  each  belligerent  to  close  the  ports  of  the  enemy  against 
traffic  with  neutral  powers :  but  to  be  effectual,  the  ports 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563.— See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


202  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE, 


must   be  actually  closed  and  guarded  by  war-vessels,  not 
merely  declared  to  be  so.  '  |  '[ 

53.  What  is  "  contraband  of  war  f'—li  consists  of  warlike 
materials  supplied  by  neutrals  to  a  belligerent  contrary  to 
the  conditions  which  should  regulate  national  intercourse  in 
a  time  of  war. 

54.  What  are  prisoners  of  war  f— They  are  soldiers  and 
others  taken  captive  in  war ;  according  to  civilized  usages 
the  lives  of  prisoners  of  war  are  spared  on  surrendering' 
and  the  captives  are  restored  to  liberty  on  the  occurrence  of 
peace. 

55.  What  is  "  martial  law?"— It  is  the  law  of  military  force, 
which  is  brought  into  operation  when,  for  some  reason,  the 
civil  law  is  suspended.  A  town  in  such  a  state  of  riotous 
disorder  as  to  be  beyond  the  control  of  the  civil  authorities, 
may  be  legally  placed  for  a  time  under  martial  law. 

56.  What  was  the  Roman  civil  law? — It  was  a  great  body 
of  Roman  laws  affecting  rights  and  relationships  amongindi- 
V^iduals,  which  was  digested  into  a  code  by  Justinian  about 
the  middle  of  6th  century. 

57.  In  what  language  was  the  code  of  Justinian  drawn  up? 

The  whole  was  written  in  Latin,  and  now  forms  a  huge  vol- 
ume, under  the  title  Corpus  Juris  Civilis  (Body  of  Civil 
law).  After  being  lost  during  the  commotions  of  the  middle 
ages,  a  solitary  copy  of  this  great  digest  was  found  at  Amalfi, 
in  Italy,  1137,  and  was  forthwith  studied   by  modern  nations. 

58.  Did  many  modern  nations  embrace  the  Roman  civil  law?— 
Yes ;  it  became  the  basis  of  municipal  law  in  most  European 
countries— some  adopting  it  more  than  others. 

59.  Have  continental  nations  adhered  to  the  Roman  law  ? — 
They  have  done  so  only  to  a  limited  extent.  It  has  been 
generally  superseded  by  an  entirely  new  digest,  called  the 
Code  Napoleon,  framed  by  order  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  be- 
tween 1803  and  1808.  A  number  of  the  provisions  of  the 
Code  Napoleon,  however,  are  drawn  from  the  Roman  law. 

60.  What  was  the"  Canon  Law?"— It  v^2i^  a  body  of  laws 
and  regulations  affecting  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779.— See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133. 


BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE.    203 

originated  in  ecclesiastical  decrees  from  the  beginning  of  the 
4th  to  the  end  of  the  12th  century, 

61.  Of  what  did  the  canoti  law  treat? — It  treated  of  bene- 
fices, the  lives  and  conversation  of  clergymen,  matrimony, 
divorces,  and  other  matters  falling  within  the  scope  of  church- 
discipline. 

62.  Is  the  canon  law  still  in  operation  ? — Yes ;  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries,  though  modified  by  modern  legislation, 
and  by  "  concordats  "  or  agreements  with  the  pope. 

63.  What  kind  of  law  prevails  in  the  United  Kingdom  ? — 
It  is  law  of  a  very  miscellaneous  kind  ;  England  and  Ireland 
have  nearly  one  species  of  law,  and  Scotland  has  another ; 
but  a  number  of  statutes  apply  to  the  three  countries. 

64.  Explain  the  nature  of  the  English  law? — It  consists 
mainly  of  statutes  passed  from  time  to  time  by  the  legisla- 
ture, and  of  what  is  called  "  common  law" — that  is,  certain 
rules  of  old  standing,  as  expounded  by  legal  authorities. 
But  to  these  two  varieties  is  added  a  species  of  canon  law, 
drawn  from  the  ancient  e  cclesiastical  law  in  use  before  the 
Reformation. 

65.  We  hear  of  "law  and  equity  /"  what  is  meant  by  "equity  ?" 
—By  "equity"  is  signified  those  principles  of  justice  which 
are  not  reached  by  any  statute  or  rule  of  common  law,  and 
require  to  be  dealt  with  separately.  For  this  branch  of 
jurisprudence  there  are  special  courts  in  England. 

66.  Mention  two  of  the  principal  law-courts  in  England? — 
The  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  the  Court  of  Queens  (or 
King's)  Bench. 

67.  What  are  the  Equity  Courts  in  England.— The  Lord 
Chancellor's  Court,  the  Master  of  the  Rolls'  Court,  and  the 
Courts  of  the  three  Vice-Chancellors. 

68.  What  is  meant  by  "  oyer  and  terminer? — Oyer  and  ter- 
miner are  words  from  the  French,  signifying  "  to  hear  and 
determine  ;"  the  phrase  is  usually  applied  to  certain  special 
courts  held  for  the  purpose  of  trying  persons  accused  of  sedi- 
tious and  treasonable  practises ;  but  all  commissions  from  the 
crown  to  judges  to  hold  courts  of  justice  are,  strictly  speak- 
ing, of  the  nature  of  "  oyer  and  terminer." 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65. 


m 


o 


204  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION^yURISPRUDENCE. 

69.  Who  was  Sir  Thomas  Littleton? — He  was  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  1466,  and  v/as  cele- 
brated as  the  author  of  a  work  on  Tenures,  useful  for  lawyers. 

70.  Who  was  Sir  Edward  Coke  f — He  was  an  eminent  law- 
yer in  the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  who  filled  the 
office  of  Chief-Justice  of  the  court  of  King's  Bench  ;  he  is  re- 
membered as  the  author  of  a  minute  and  laborious  Commen- 
tary on  the  work  of  Sir  Thomas  Littleton,  usually  styled 
Coke  upon  Littleton,  which  remains  a  leading  authority  on 
English  law. 

71.  Who  was  Sir  William  Blackstone? — He  was  a  learned 
judge  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  who  died  1780.  Black- 
stone  is  best  known  for  his  Commentaries  on  the  laws  of  Eng^ 
land,  a  work  first  published  in  1765,  which,  from  its  tasteful 
and  popular  style,  has  been  often  reprinted. 

72.  What  law  prevails  in  the  British  colonies? — Where  the 
colonies  are  of  British  origin,  the  law  and  legal  usages  of 
England  prevail.  Where  the  colonies  or  dependencies  are  of 
foreign  origin,  the  law  of  the  original  settlers  is,  by  stipula- 
tion, for  the  most  part  maintained.  For  example,  in  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  which  was  originally  a  Dutch  colony,  the  old 
Dutch  (or  Roman  civil)  law  prevails. 

73.  What  law  prevails  in  India? — Several  kinds  of  law  are 
maintained  in  that  great  dependency,  in  order  to  suit  the 
habits  and  usages  of  a  mixed  population.  For  the  aboriginal 
Hindus  there  is  the  Hindu  law;  for  the  Mohammedans,  the 
law  of  the  Koran  ;  and  for  British  settlers,  the  law  of  Eng- 
land.   Judges  are  appointed  to  administer  these  diverse  law. 

74.  What  law  prevails  in  Scotland? — The  old  Roman  civil 
law,  modified  by  modern  statutes,  and  a  common  law  of  native 
growth. 

75.  Mention  a  work  in  which  the  law  of  Scotland  is  embodied, 
— The  best  known  work  on  the  subject  is  Erskine's  Princi- 
ples of  the  Law  of  Scotland,  published  in  1754,  which  remains 
a  valuable  text-book. 

76.  What  is  the  supreme  civil  court  in  Scotland? — It  is  the 
Court  of  Session,  which  comprehends  jurisdiction  in  cases  of 
equity  as  well  as  law. 


Julius    Csesar,  a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See   page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles. — See   page  47. 


BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE,    205 

TJ.  What  is  the  supreme  court  of  appeal  in  the  United  King- 
dom?—It  is  the  House  of  Lords,  to  which  cases  may  be  ap- 
pealed for  decision  from  the  chief  civil  courts  in  England, 
Ireland,  and  Scotland.  The  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council  forms  a  court  of  appeal  from  the  colonies  and  de- 
pendencies. 

72>.  Who  appoints  the  judges  in  the  different  courts  through- 
out the  United  Kingdom  ? — Excepting  as  concerns  certain 
"duchies  palatine,"  all  judges  are  appointed  by  the  crown, 
and  hold  office  for  life. 

79.  What  is  a  "  duchy  palatine  ?" — It  is  a  division  of  coun- 
try formerly  under  the  distinct  government  of  a  duke  or 
other  powerful  feudal  lord.  The  duchy  of  Lancaster  is  an 
example. 

80.  When  was  the  duchy  of  Cornwall  created? — It  was  created 
in  1377,  in  favor  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  and  by  act  of 
parliament,  remains  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  as  hereditary  Duke  of  Cornwall,  who  appoints  the 
judges  in  the  duchy,  and  draws  from  it  certain  revenues. 

81.  What  is  the  legal  position  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  ? — 
That  duchy  was  forfeited  to  the  crown  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward IV.  The  crown  now  appoints  a  chancellor  to  the 
duchy  as  a  removable  minister,  by  whom  an  attorney- 
general,  and  other  functionaries  are  nominated,  with  equity 
jurisdiction. 

82.  What  is  "  trial  by  jury  ?" — It  is  the  trial  of  alleged  crim, 
inals  by  a  jury  or  body  of  individuals  impartially  selected, 
according  to  prescribed  forms,  from  the  community.  The 
duty  of  the  jury  consists  in  determining  whether  the  facts 
charged  against  a  prisoner  are  proved. 

83.  Is  trial  by  jury  of  ancient  origin? — Yes  ;  it  is  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  institution,  and  forms  an  important  safeguard  against 
arbitrary  authority. 

84.  Is  trial  by  jury  conducted  uniformly  in  the  United  King- 
dom ? — No  ;  in  England  and  Ireland,  a  jury  on  a  criminal 
Case  consists  of  12  individuals,  who  must  be  unanimous  in 
their  decisions.  In  Scotland,  the  jury  consists  of  15,3  ma- 
jority of  whom  decides. 


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The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


& 


20G  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE. 

85.  What  is  the  *' grand  jury?" — It  is  a  body  of  individuali 
summoned  by  sheriffs  in  different  localities  to  determine 
whether  cases  of  alleged  crime  may  be  brought  to  trial.  The 
institution  of  grand  jury,  however,  does  not  exist  in  Scotland, 
where  its  duties  as  respects  criminal  charges  are  performed 
by  a  public  prosecutor,  styled  Lord  Advocate,  who  is  assisted 
by  various  "  Deputes." 

86.  Is  trial  by  jury  employed  in  civil  cases  f — Yes  ;  it  is  ap- 
plied in  connection  with  the  chief  civil  courts  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  principally  in  relation  to  questions  of  damage  for 
alleged  injuries. 

87.  What  are  "  Procurators-Fiscal?" — They  are  public  in- 
vestigators and  prosecutors  of  crime  m  Scotland,  connected 
with  county  and  civic  jurisdictions,  and  are  subordinate  to 
the  Lord  Advocate.  The  term  "fiscal"  is  from  the  Latin 
fiscus,  signifying  the  crown  exchequer. 

88.  What  is  a  diplomatist  ? — The  term  signifies  one  who  con- 
ducts negotiations  between  sovereigns  ;  this  duty,  formerly 
assigned  to  heralds,  is  now  committed  to  ambassadors  and 
special  envoys.  The  term  diplomatist  is  from  diploma,  which 
is  derived  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  "  double  or  twofold." 
Anciently,  a  folded-up  letter  was  called  a  diploma,  and  hence 
diplomatist  was  applied  to  one  who  received  a  folded  paper 
of  instructions. 

89.  What  are  Mercantile  Consuls? — They  are  officers  subor- 
dinate to  ambassadors,  whom  the  state  maintains  in  foreign 
countries  for  the  protection  of  its  trade  and  vindication  of  the 
rights  of  its  merchants.  A  consul  is  expected  to  render 
friendly  aid  to  every  subject  or  citizen  of  the  country  for 
which  he  acts.  A  consul  is  not  necessarily  a  native  of  the 
country  from  which  he  is  deputed. 

90.  What  is  meant  by  the  "  exequatur  of  a  consul?" — The 
i^xm  exequatur  {;;'\q\.  him  execute")  is  applied  to  a  written 
recognition  of  a  consul  who  has  been  deputed  by  a  foreign 
country,  and  authorizes  him  to  execute  his  assigned  duties. 
This  exequatur  or  recognition  issues  from  the  crown  ;  in  the 
event  of  war  with  the  country  for  which  the  consul  acts> 
his  exequatur  is  withdrawn. 


Croesus,   a   King  in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See  page   234. 


'•'o!«:«.- 


GIGANTIC     ASSYRIAN     ARCHWAY;     WITH    HIEROGLYPHIC     INSCRIP- 
TIONS  RECENTLY    DISCOVERED. 207. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS.  207 

MISCELLANEOUS   QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  Archceology? — It  is  the  branch  of  knowledge 
embracing  objects  of  ancient  art,  also  ancient  languages,  man- 
ners, inscriptions,  books,  monuments,  and  institutions — all, 
indeed,  that  can  throw  light  on  the  early  history  of  the 
world.  The  term  is  from  the  Greek  archaz'os,  ancient;  and 
logos,  a  discourse. 

2.  Is  the  study  of  archcEology  of  modern  date  ? — It  always  at- 
tracted more  or  less  attention ;  but  it  is  only  in  recent  times 
that  men  of  learning  have  devoted  themselves  to  studies  of 
this  kind  in  a  scientific  and  critical  way,  either  as  regards  the 
continents  of  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  Europe,  or  the 
British  islands. 

3.  What  have  been  the  grander  objects  of  archcEological  in- 
quiry in  Northern  Africa  and  Asia? — The  pyramids  of  Egypt, 
and  the  gigantic  stone  figures  of  Assyria ;  regarding  these 
many  interesting  discoveries  have  been  made  in  recent 
times  by  English  and  French  archaeologists. 

4.  What  is  the  " Rosetta  stone?" — It  is  a  celebrated  slab  of 
stone  of  a  dark  color  found  at  Rosetta,  in  Egypt,  bearing  an 
inscription  in  three  varieties  of  character— the  ancient  hie- 
roglyphic, the  popular  character  of  the  country,  and  the 
Greek. 

5.  What  has  rendered  this  stone  a  subject  of  interest  ? — Interest 
in  the  Rosetta  stone  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  its  triple 
inscription  afforded  a  key  to  hieroglyphics  ;  when  the  idea 
was  arrived  at,  that  the  three  inscriptions  were  repetitions 
of  each  other,  it  of  course  became  easy,  through  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  Greek,  to  interpret  the  other  two. 

6.  Who  made  this  discovery? — Champollion,  an  eminent 
French  archaeologist ;  the  Rosetta  stone  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  casts  from  it  are  common. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  the  "  Stone,  Bronze,  andiron  ages?" — Ac- 
cording to  the  theories  of  certain  archaeologists,  there  was 
a  period  in  which  weapons  were  made  of  stone  ;  this  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  period  in  which  weapons  were  made  of  copper; 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821. — See  page  411. 


S 


208  MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS. 

and  lastly,  there  was  a  period  when  weapons  of  iron  came 
into  use. 

8.  Where  are  stone  and  copper  weapons  to  be  seen .?— Thev 
may  be  seen  in  museums,  and  consist  chiefly  of  arrow- 
heads and  axes.  They  are  supposed  to  be  very  ancient— prob- 
ably three  to  four  thousand  years  old. 

9.  Mention  some  of  the  7nore  notable  of  the  very  ancient  anti- 
quities in  the  British  islands.— (Zxom\^c\i%  barrows,  cairns, 
Druidic  temples,  crannoges,  and  hill-forts— all  dating  from  a 
period  previous  to  the  occupation  of  Britain  by  the  Romans. 

10.  What  is  a  cromlech?— It  consists  of  several  large  stones 
set  upright,  with  one  or  more  stones  laid  across  the  top, 
forming  a  kind  of  table.  Cromlechs  are  seen  in  France  as 
well  as  England ;  they  are  believed  to  be  sepulchral  mem^ 
orials  or  tombs. 


Stonehenge. 

11.  What  are  barrows  ?—B?iYrov7S  are  heaped  tumuli  or 
mounds  of  earth,  generally  conical,  and,  in  some  instances, 
cover  interior  erections  of  stones  resembling  cromlechs.  It 
is  thought  that  open  cromlechs  had  once  been  so  covered 
up,  and  that  the  earth  has  been  washed  or  worn  away  in  the 
course  of  ages. 

12.  What  are  cairns  f— They  are  large  heaps  of  stones 
forming  conical  mounds,  and  were  probably  intended  to  be 
commemorative  of  some  distinguished  hero  or  remarkable 
event. 

13.  What  is  the  form  of  Druidic  temples  f—Thty  consist  of 
circles  of  huge  stones,  with,  in  some  instances,  stones  of 
equallv  large  dimensions  laid  from  the  top  of  one  upright 


"  Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS.  2O9 

stone  to  the  top  of  another.  The  grandest  antiquity  of  this 
kind  in  England  is  that  at  Stonehenge,  in  Wiltshire,  a  few 
miles  from  Salisbury. 

14.  Why  are  these  stone  circles  called  Druidic  temples? — Be- 
cause it  has  been  thought  they  were  used  as  temples  in  the 
pagan  worship  of  the  Druids— a  priesthood  among  the  early 
Britons  and  Gauls.  But  there  is  no  absolute  certainty  on  the 
subject. 

15.  What  were  crannoges  ? — They  were  artificial  islands,  for- 
tified, in  lakes,  where  families  lived  secure  from  attack.  Re- 
mains of  these  very  ancient  and  curious  lake-dwellings  are 
found  in  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Switzerland. 

16.  What  were  British  hill-forts  ?— They  were  circular  or 
oval  intrenchments  of  earth  and  stones,  erected  generally  on 
the  tops  of  hills  of  moderate  elevation,  and  used  as  places  of 
defence  previous  to  and  at  the  Roman  invasion. 

17.  What  is  the  shape  of  Roman  camps  .?— They  are  usually 
in  the  form  of  a  square  or  parallelogram,  with  several  raised 
mounds  or  intrenchments  and  intervening  ditches,  and  they 
cover  a  considerable  space  of  ground.  They  had  four  en- 
trances, one  on  each  side.  One  of  these  entrances,  called  the 
Praetorian  Gate,  led  to  the  tent  of  the  commander,  which  was 
styled  the  Prcetoriwn. 

18.  What  are  ''Round  Towers?" — They  are  tall,  narrow 
towers  of  masonry  several  stories  in  height,  found  chiefly  in 
Ireland.  They  are  believed  to  date  from  the  5th  to  the  12th 
century,  and  to  have  been  used  as  belfries  to  churches,  as 
well  as  safe  receptacles  for  the  church  vessels  in  times  of 
civil  disorder.     Much  has  been  written  regarding  them. 

19.  When  were  the  old  castles  erected  which  are  now  seen  in 
ruins? — The  greater  number  in  England  and  Scotland  were 
not  erected  till  after  the  Norman  conquest ;  the  feudal  keeps 
or  peel-houses  on  the  border  were,  for  the  greater  part, 
erected  from  the  14th  to  the  i6th  century. 

20.  What  is  Heraldry? — It  is  the  branch  of  knowledge 
connected  with  armorial  bearings,  with  which  heralds  are 
presumed  to  be  acquainted.  Armorial  bearings  are  of  an- 
cient origin,  but  they  acquired  a  systematized  form  in  Eng- 


The    Earth's      Surface     is      aoo,ooo,ooo      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


V 

a 

o 
u 


210  MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS. 

land  only  about  the  time  of  Henry  III.,  or  end  of  the  i3tb 
century. 

21.  What  are  armorial  bearings  ? — They  are  figurative  marks 
of  distinction  assigned  to  individuals  by  certain  courts  ap- 
pointed by  the  sovereign — the  Heralds'  College  in  England  ; 
the  College  of  Arms  in  Ireland ;  and  the  Lyon  court  in 
Scotland.  Armorial  bearings  are  usually  styled  "coats  of 
arms." 

22.  Of  what  does  a  coat  of  arms  consist  ? — In  the  highest 
class  it  consists  of  a  shield  with  supporters,  and  a  crest,  along 
with  a  motto ;  but  only  members  of  the  peerage,  or  those 
particularly  qualified,  are  entitled  to  use  supporters. 

23.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  shield? — It  is  a  triangular 
figure  with  the  point  downwards,  and  its  tinctures  and  em- 
blematic devices  are  some  way  significant  of  the  family  his- 
tory of  the  individual  bearing  it. 

24.  What  are  the  tinctures  in  heraldry  ? — They  are  as  fol- 
lows :  gold,  which  is  termed  or  ;  silver,  termed  argent ;  fur, 
termed  vair ;  and  red,  blue,  black,  green,  and  purple,  known 
as  gules,  azure,  sable,  vert,  and  purpure.  The  surface  of  the 
shield  is  called  "  the  field." 

25.  What  were  the  supporters  in  the  royal  arms  previous  to 
the  union  of  thecrowris? — They  were  for  England  two  lions; 
and  for  Scotland  two  unicorns. 

26.  What  were  the  supporters  to  the  royal  arms  of  Great 
Britain  after  the  union  of  the  crowns? — They  consisted  of  a 
lion  on  one  side,  and  a  unicorn  on  the  other.  According  to 
the  present  legalized  usage,  the  lion  occupies  the  right  or 
dexter  side ;  sometimes,  in  Scotland,  the  unicorn  is  authori- 
zedly  placed  on  the  right  side,  as  in  judicial  seals. 

27.  What  was  borne  on  the  shield  in  the  royal  ar 7ns  previous 
to  the  union  of  the  crowns? — In  England,  the  shield  bore  three 
Woxis,  passant  (walking),  on  a  field  or  ;  in  Scotland,  one  lion, 
rampant  (standing  on  its  hind-legs),^2^/<?J,  on  a  field  or.  Scott, 
in  his  Marmion,  alludes  to  the  royal  banner  of  Scotland,  on 
which — 

"  The  ruddy  lion  rampt  in  gold." 

28.  How  is  the  royal  shield  of  the  United  Kingdom  now  quar* 


o  L 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,    in    Mythology,  was   the   Food    of  the   G-jcis. — See  page   248. 


MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS. 


211 


tered? — It  bears  the  three  lions  of  England  in  the  first  and 
fourth  quarter,  the  lion  of  Scotland  in  the  second  quarter, 
and  the  harp  for  Ireland  in  the  third  quarter — the  whole 
significant  of  the  union  of  the  several  countries  under  one 
sovereign. 

29.  What  is  Lloyd's? — It  is  an  establishment  at  the  Royal 
Exchange,  London,  where  a  body  of  subscribers  receive  in- 
telligence concerning  shipping,  and  where  the  insurance  of 
vessels  at  sea  is  undertaken  by  capitalists  engaged  in  this 
kind  of  business,  styled  underwriters.  This  great  marine 
establishment  has  agents  at  nearly  all  the  seaports  in  the 
world. 

30.  From  what  does  Lloyd's  take  its  name  ? — It  is  named  from 
one  Lloyd,  who  kept  a  coffee-house  in  Abchurch  Lane  in 
1710,  the  business  of  which  was  afterwards  transferred  to  the 
Royal  Exchange.  The  establishment  is  now  purely  com- 
mercial. 

31.  What  is  "Numisuiaticsf — It  is  the  science  which  treats 
of  coins  and  medals  ;  the  term  is  from  the  Greek  notnisma, 
"money  issued  by  lawful  authority" — the  root  of  the  word 
nomistna  being  nomos,  law." 

32.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  ''pecuniary  f — It  is  from 
the  h^tin  pecunia,  money  ;  the  root  of  the  word  pecunia  was 
pecus,  "cattle" — cattle  having  consLituted  the  wealth  of  the 
early  Roman  people. 

33.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  "  money  f" — It  is  from  the 
temple  of  Juno  Moneta,  in  which  money  was  coined  by  the 
Romans.    Mint,  or  place  of  coinage,  has  the  same  root. 

34.  What  is  77teant  by  "sterling  f — It  signifies  money  of  the 
legalized  standard  of  coinage  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

35.  Explain  the  origin  of  "  sterling." — The  term  sterling  \^ 
believed  to  be  a  corruption  of  Easterling — a  person  from  the 
continent,  and  therefore  from  the  East,  in  relation  to  Eng- 
land. The  Easterlings  were  ingenious  artisans  who  came  to 
England  from  Germany  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  to  refine 
the  silver  money;  and  the  coin  they  produced  was  called 
Moneta  Esterlingorum — the  money  of  the  Easterlings. 

36.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  "  cash  f" — The  term  cash^ 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


0} 


212  MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS. 

signifying  ready  money,  is  from  the  French  word  caz'sse,  3 
chest  or  place  in  which  money  is  kept.  The  apartment  in  a 
French  bank  in  which  cash  is  paid  is  called  the  caz'sse.  Such 
an  apartm.ent  in  an  English  bank  is  called  the  telling-roo7n. 

37.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  word'' pound''  in  money  ? — The 
t^xvci pound  ^2i^  originally  employed  to  signify  a  pound-weight 
of  silver,  which  was  divided  into  20  parts  or  shillings  ;  and 
205-.  still  continue  to  be  called  a  pound,  although  their  weight 
has  been  gradually  so  much  diminished,  that  it  now  takes  66 
of  them  to  make  a  pound-weight. 

38.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  "  shilling  f" — Some  con- 
nect it  with  the  Swedish  skilja,  to  divide  ;  out  it  is  more 
probably  a  corruption  of  the  Latin  solidus,  the  name  of  a  coin 
in  ancient  Rome,  and  also  in  the  middle  ages. 

39.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  "guinea  f — Guinea  took 
its  name  from  the  coast  of  Guinea,  in  Africa, whence  the  gold 
for  it  was  originally  brought.  The  guinea  is  not  now  coined 
but  the  term  still  indicates  21s. 

40.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  "penny  ?" — It  is  thought 
by  some  to  be  connected  with  the  Lat.  pendo,  to  weigh,  or  to 
pay,  and  at  one  time  was  used  for  money  in  general,  as  in 
the  phrase  "  a  good  pennyworth."  The  penny  is  a  very  old 
coin  in  England,  and  was  originally  of  silver,  being  the  240th 
part  of  a  pound-weight;  the  fourth  part  of  a  penny  was  called 
by  the  AngloSz-nons  feort hung — hence  farthing. 

41.  What  was  a  "groat  f" — It  was  a  silver  piece  equal  in 
value  to  fourpence,  coined  in  England  until  after  1351.  The 
n?imQ  groat,  which  signifies  "  great,"  is  thought  to  have  been 
given  to  it  from  its  value,  as  compared  with  a  penny. 

42.  What  is  meant  by  the  "pillar  dollar?" — The  pillar  dollar 
is  the  name  familiarly  given  to  the  old  Spanish  dollar  in  con- 
sequence of  bearing  a  representation  of  two  pillars,  with  the 
inscription  Plus  Ultra,  "more  beyond" — meaning  that  Spain 
owned  possessions  beyond  the  "  pillars  of  Hercules,"  or  moun- 
tains at  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  The  allusion  was  to  the 
Spanish  American  colonies. 

43.  What  is  a  "piece  of  eight?" — It  was  the  name  oncC 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


CO 


X 


MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS,  213 

popularly  given  to  the  Spanish  dollar,  in  consequence  of 
comprehending  eight  reals. 

44.  What  is  a  "  cent  f — It  is  a  copper  coin  of  the  United 
States,  the  hundredth  part  of  a  dollar,  and  is  named  from 
the  Latin  centum,  a  hundred  ;  in  value,  it  is  nearly  the  same 
as  an  English  half-penny. 

45.  What  is  a  rupee? — It  is  a  coin  in  use  in  India,  value 
two  shillings  ;  the  name  is  a  corruption  of  the  Sanscrit  rUpya, 
from  rupa,  shape,  and  is  said  to  have  been  given  from  the 
first  coins  having  had  the  shape  or  figure  of  a  man  impressed 
on  them.    A  lac  of  rupees  is  100,000. 

46.  What  are  "  bills  of  exchange  ?" — They  are  written  obli- 
gations to  pay  certain  sums  of  money  at  a  specified  time,  and 
are  a  ready  and  convenient  means  of  settling  commercial 
debts.  The  person  who  signs  a  bill,  as  undertaking  the  ob- 
ligation to  pay,  is  called  the  acceptor. 

47.  What  is  mea7tt  by  "  rate  of  exchange"  between  two  coun- 
tries?— If  the  merchants  of  one  country  have  to  pay  to  an- 
other country  more  m  oney  than  they  receive  in  return,  they 
experience  a  corresponding  difficulty  in  buying  bills  to  trans- 
mit to  their  creditors,  and  the  rate  of  exchange  is  against 
them. 

48.  Give  an  example. — A  merchant  in  America  who  wishes 
to  send  a  bill  of  exchange  for  ;^ioo  to  a  merchant  in  England 
may  have  to  pay  £120  to  a  bank  for  it.  In  this  case,  the  ex- 
cess of  £20  is  the  rate  of  exchange  in  favor  of  England. 

49.  What  is  the  ''Stock  Exchange?" — It  is  a  resort  in  Lon- 
don where  brokers  buy  and  sell  portions  of  the  government 
stocks  ;  these  stocks  are  certain  parts  of  the  national  debt, 
which  are  ordinarily  spoken  of  as  the  funds.  By  these  deal- 
ings, the  claims  on  the  nation  are  constantly  shifting  hands. 

50.  What  are  "consols?" — The  term  consols  is  applied  to  a 
particular  kind  of  government  stock  ;  composed  of  various 
stocks  (properly  different  borrowings  by  government),  which 
have  been  consolidated  into  one. 

51.  What  are  "Joint-stock  undertakings?" — They  are  large 
commercial  enterprises,  in  which  a  number  of  persons  join 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


214  MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS. 

together,  each  puting  in  a  certain  amount  of  money,  by  tak- 
ing shares,  to  commence  and  carry  on  the  concern.  The 
aggregate  amount  of  the  shares  forms  the  "  capital  stock"  of 
the  company. 

52.  What  is"  par  f — Paris  the  original  value  of  a  share. 
If  the  share  be  ;^io  that  sum  is  par ;  if,  from  prospects  of 
high  profit,  the  ;^io  share  sells  for  ^12,  then  the  share  is  £2 
above  par;  if,  from  apprehensions  of  a  small  profit,  it  is  sale- 
able for  only  ;^8,  then  the  share  is  £2  below  par.  All  that  is 
above  par  is  called  premiwn  ;  all  that  is  below  is  termed 
discount. 

53.  What  zs  meant  by  "  the  currency  ?" — The  currency  is  the 
money  of  various  kinds  passing  from  hand  to  hand.  It  con- 
sists of  gold,  silver,  and  copper  coins,  called  the  metallic  cur- 
rency ;  and  bills  of  exchange,  bank-notes,  and  other  instru- 
ments of  exchange,  known  as  Wi^  paper  currency. 

54.  What  is  a  bank-note? — It  is  the  written  promise  of  a 
bank  to  pay  to  the  bearer  a  certain  expressed  sum  in  the 
standard  metal  currency  on  demand.  If  the  bank  fails  to 
fulfil  its  promise,  the  note  immediately  sinks  in  value,  and 
may  become  absolutely  worthless.  By  no  law  or  contriv- 
ance can  the  nominal  value  of  bank-notes  be  sustained  if  the 
holders  have  not  perfect  confidence  in  getting  the  expressed 
sum  on  presenting  the  notes  at  the  bank  where  they  are 
issued. 

55.  What  is ''Political  Economy  ?" — It  is  the  science  which 
explains  the  principles  of  national  wealth  ;  the  great  and  illus- 
trious expounder  of  this  science  was  Adam  Smith  in  his  work, 
The  Wealth  of  Nations  ;  but  only  in  recent  times  have  the 
principles  of  the  science  been  embraced  in  England,  and 
many  countries  still  reject  them. 

56.  What  is  the  law  of  ''demand  and  supply?" — It  is  one  of 
the  leading  laws  or  principles  of  political  economy,  by  which 
the  whole  world  is  furnished  with  the  necessaries  of  life, 
each  person  according  to  his  means. 

57.  Explain  the  law  of  demand  and  supply. — If  there  be  a 
general  demand  for  an  article,  it  will  be  supplied,  merely  from 
the  desire  for  gain.    If  the  demand  exceed  the  supply,  prices 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815.— See   page    368. 


MISCELLANEO  US  Q  VEST  IONS.  2 1 5 

will  rise  ;  if  the  supply  goes  beyond  the  demand,  prices  will 
fall.  Such,  in  ordinary  circumstances,  is  the  sole  principle 
that  regulates  prices,  and  also  wages. 

58.  What  is  **  monopoly  f' — Monopoly  is  a  term  from  the 
Greek,  signifying  the  sole  power  of  dealing  in  a  particular 
article  ;  an  exclusive  right  of  this  kind  tends  to  render  th© 
article  dealt  in  not  only  dear,  but  of  a  poor  quality, 

59.  What  is  meant  by  a  protective  policy  in  trade? — It  means 
a  system  of  legal  obstruction  to  the  importation  of  certain 
goods  into  a  country,  in  order  to  give  a  monopoly  to  the 
native  producers  of  such  goods — the  proiessed  aim  of  a 
policy  of  this  nature  being  to  encourage  the  growth  of  native 
manufactures. 

60.  What  ensues  from  a  protective  policy? — The  result  is, 
that  the  public  are  compelled  to  buy  dear  instead  of  cheap 
goods  ;  thus  losing  money  for  the  presumed  advantage  of  a 
few,  the  purchasers  are  unable  to  buy  as  many  things  as  they 
would  otherwise  like  to  do,  and,  accordingly ,  trade  generally 
is  made  to  suffer.  In  plain  language,  f)rotection  in  trade  is 
little  better  than  public  robbery. 

61.  What  is'' free  trade?" — It  is  freedom  of  import  and  ex- 
port, by  which  trade  adjusts  itself  between  different  coun- 
tries, and  every  one  is  left  "  to  buy  in  the  cheapest  and  sell 
in  the  dearest  market,"  This  is  now  recognized  as  a  sound 
principle  in  political  economy,  and  the  only  one  consistent 
with  national  advantage. 

62.  What  is  "  contraband  trade  .?"— It  is  an  irregular  trade 
carried  on  contrary  to  law ;  usually,  it  consists  in  introducing 
goods  illegally  and  secretly  into  a  country,  in  order  that  they 
may  escape  the  duties  chargeable  upon  them.  Persons  en- 
gaged in  this  clandestine  trade  are  called  "  smugglers." 

63.  What  is  7neant  by  social  amelioration  ? — It  signifies  an 
improvement  in  the  habits,  feelings,  and  condition  of  the 
people  generally.  History  points  out  the  progressive  stages 
of  social  amelioration — great  advances  having  been  lately 
made,  chiefly  by  means  of  education  in  its  elementary  and 
higher  branches. 

64.  What  is  a  College  ? — The  term  college  is  from  the  Latin^ 


^ 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


1 


216  MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS. 

collegium,  signifying  a  collection  or  assembly.  It  is  some* 
times  applied  to  associations  of  clergy,  lawyers,  physicians, 
and  others,  but  most  commonly  it  means  a  body  of  teachers 
or  professors,  and  sometimes  graduates,  incorporated  for  the 
promotion  of  certain  branches  of  learning,  and  who  live  to- 
gether in  the  same  building. 

65.  What  IS  a  University  f — The  term  university  is  from  the 
Latin  universitas,  in  its  sense  of  a  corporation.  A  university 
may  comprehend  and  have  authority  over  several  distinct 
colleges ;  and  such  is  frequently  the  case,  as  at  Oxford,  Cam- 
bridge, and  some  other  places.  The  university  of  France 
is  an  institution  comprehending  all  the  colleges  in  that 
country. 

66.  What  is  meant  by  a  "  learned  faculty  ?" — It  is  the  term 
applied  to  the  teachers  (as  a  body)  of  a  particular  kind  of 
learning,  such  as  those  of  law  and  medicine.  The  term  faculty 
is  from  the  ^j^Wnfacultas,  strictly  signifying  a  power  of  doing 
anything. 

67.  How  are  the  branches  of  learning  in  a  university  classi- 
fied?— They  are  ordinarily  classified  into  four  faculties — arts, 
divinity,  law,  and  medicine. 

68.  What  branches  are  comprehended  in  the  faculty  of  arts  ? 
Latin  and  Greek  languages,  Mathematics,  Logic,  Natural  and 
Moral  Philosophy,  History,  Rhetoric,  and  Belles-Lettres,  As- 
tronomy, and  some  other  branches. 

69.  What  branches  are  co7nprehended  in  the  faculty  of  divin- 
ity?— Divinity,  or  Theology;  the  study  of  the  Scriptures, 
historical  and  critical ;  Hebrew,  and,  in  a  general  sense,  the 
learning  especially  required  by  clergymen. 

70.  What  branches  are  comprehended  in  the  faculty  of  law  ? — 
Classes  for  instruction  in  the  different  kinds  of  law  required 
by  legal  practitioners  ;  also  medical  jurisprudence. 

71.  What  branches  are  comprehended  in  the  faculty  of  medi- 
cine? — Anatomy,  Practice  of  Physic,  Clinical  Surgery,  Path- 
ology, Materia  Medica,  Botany,  Chemistry,  and  various  other 
departments. 

72.  What  is  meant  by  Rhetoric  ? — Rhetoric  is  a  term  from 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long.— See    page    302. 


MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS.  217 

the  Greek,  and  signifies  the  art  of  speaking  with  propriet)/ 
and  oratorical  effect—  the  science  of  eloquence. 

73.  What  is  mea7it  by  Belles-Lettres? — The  \.Qxm  Belles- Let- 
ires  is  French,  signifying  literally  fine  or  elegant  writings; 
but  it  is  commonly  applied  to  the  art  of  literary  composi- 
tion in  the  different  departments  of  poetry  and  prose. 

74.  What  is  Pathology? — A  knowledge  of  the  causes  and 
character  of  diseases  ;  so  called  from  the  Qx^t^i  pathos,  suffer- 
ing, and  logos,  a  discourse. 

75.  What  is  Hygiene  ? — It  is  the  art  of  preserving  health  ; 
the  term  is  from  Hygieia,  the  goddess  of  health  in  the  Greek 
mythology. 

76.  What  is  meant  by  Therapeutics? — It  is  from  the  Greek 
word  therapeuo,  I  cure,  and  signifies  the  application  of  medi- 
cines and  other  means  of  curing  diseases. 

TJ.  What  is  Surgery  ? — The  art  of  healing  diseases  by  in- 
struments, the  medical  practitioner  who  does  so  being  called 
a  surgeon  ;  this  word  surgeon,  however,  is  a  contraction  of  the 
older  term  chirurgeon,  which  is  from  the  two  Greek  words 
signifying  hand  and  work,  or  work  done  by  the  hand. 

']'^.  What  is  meant  by  "  clinical,"  as  applied  to  surgery  and 
medicine? — "Clinical"  is  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  a  bed, 
and  is  applied  to  those  branches  in  the  medical  art  in  which 
Instruction  is  given  to  students  at  the  bedsides  of  patients. 
Hospitals  and  infirmaries  are  the  great  schools  of  clinical 
medicine  and  surgery. 

79.  What  is  Materia  Medica  ? — It  is  the  branch  of  instruc- 
tion which  treats  of  the  nature  and  the  action  of  medicines. 

80.  What  is  meant  by  Pharmacy  ? — It  is  the  art  of  preparing 
md  dispensing  medicines.  A  book  which  gives  directions 
for  the  preparing  and  compounding  medicines  is  called  a 
Pharmacopceia. 

81.  What  is  Medical  Jurisprudence? — It  is  the  application 
of  medical  and  chemical  science  to  the  discovery  of  the  causes 
of  death  under  circumstances  requiring  legal  investigation. 
For  example — professors  of  medical  jurisprudence  are  em- 
ployed to    examine   the   bodies   of   persons  who   are    sup- 

10 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563.— See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


218  MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS. 

posed  to  have  been  murdered  by  criminal  administration  of 
poisons. 

82.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  ''  vis  medicatrix  naturce  ?" — ■ 
It  signifies  the  natural  power  of  healing  in  the  animal  system 
for  example,  a  cut  in  the  finger  will  heal  through  a  natural 
inherent  power — the  vis  medicatrix  naturce — and,  what  we 
have  chiefly  to  do,  in  the  case  of  wounds,  is  to  facilitate  the 
operation  of  this  beneficent  power  in  nature. 

83.  What  is  a  degree  in  a  college  or  university? — The  term 
"  degree"  is  from  the  Latin  gradus,  a  step,  and  signifies  an 
advance  made  by  the  student  in  certain  branches  of  learning. 
The  conferring  of  degrees  is  one  of  the  privileges  of  an  incor- 
porated college  or  university.  The  degrees  best  known  are 
those  indicated  by  A.M.,  master  of  arts:  D.D.,  doctor  of 
divinity;  M.D.,  doctor  of  medicine;  and  LL.D.,  doctor  of 
laws. 

84.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  letters  LL.D --LL.D.  stand 
for  Legum  doctor,  doctor  of  laws,  the  double  L  signifying  that 
the  word  is  in  the  plural — laws  in  reference  to  the  two  kinds 
of  law,  the  Civil,  and  the  Canon  or  Ecclesiastical  law.  It  is 
now,  however,  usually  given  as  an  honorary  degree,  or  for 
eminence  in  science  and  literature  generally,  without  any 
special  reference  to  law. 

85.  What  is  engineering  ?— It  is  the  art  of  designing  and 
superintending  the  execution  of  large  undertakings,  such  as 
roads,  railways,  canals,  bridges,  piers,  docks,  and  water-works. 
Usually  it  is  styled  civil  engineering,  to  distinguish  it  from 
military  engineering,  and  from  the  making  of  steam-engines 
and  other  machinery. 

86.  Mention  two  celebrated  civil  engineers  in  recent  times.— 
Thomas  Telford,  originally  an  operative  mason  in  Dumfries- 
shire, Avho  rose  to  distinction  as  constructor  of  the  Caledonian 
Canal  and  other  great  works  of  public  utility;  died  1834. 
And  Robert  Stephenson  (son  of  George  Stephenson,  improver 
of  the  locomotive),  born  1803,  eminent  for  his  various  railway 
works,  also  for  constructing  the  tubular  bridge  across  the 
Menai  Strait;  he  died  1859,  and  was  buried  by  the  side  of 
Telford  in  Westminster  Abbey. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


SACRED    HISTORY. — BUILDING    OF    THE    TOWER    OF    BABEL. 219. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859, — See   page    133. 


HISTORICAL, 


2ig 


87.  What  is  meant  by  ^Esthetics? — It  signifies  the  science  of 
the  beautiful,  applied  to  painting,  sculpture,  music,  and  othei 
fine  arts,  also  poetry  and  the  feelings.  The  theory  of  the 
beautiful  has  engaged  much  learned  disquisition  in  ancient 
and  modern  times. 

88.  What  recent  French  writer  has  treated  of  the  beautiful? 
— Victor  Cousin,  who  rises  to  an  apprehension  of  an  ideal 
beauty  whose  realization  he  finds  in  God — "  God,"  says  Cousin, 
"  in  whom  is  combined  absolute  unity  with  infinite  variety, 
is  necessarily  the  realized  ideal  of  all  beauty." 

89.  What  are  the  famed  lines  of  Keats  on  beauty  ? — They  are 
as  follows : 

"  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  for  ever; 
Its  loveliness  increases  ;  it  will  never 
Pass  into  nothingness." 


HISTORICAL. 


1.  What  is  History? — History  is  a  narrative  of  events  ex- 
tending over  a  considerable  period. 

2.  How  has  history  been  divided? — Into  sacred  and  profane 
history — another  name  for  profane  history  being  civil  history, 
or  the  account  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  civil  society  in 
different  nations. 

3.  What  is  Sacred  History? — That  which  is  contained  in 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 

4.  How  else  is  History  divided? — For  convenience,  it  is  di- 
vided into  Ancient,  Medieval,  and  Modern  history. 

5.  How  are  the  dates  in  history  defined? — Events  which  pre- 
cede the  Christian  era  are  usually  marked  b.  c,  meaning  so 
many  years  Before  Christ  ;  and  those  events  which  occur 
afterwards  are  marked  A.  D.,  such  being  an  abbreviation  of 
Anno  Domini,  the  year  of  Our  Lord. 

6.  At  what  ti7ne  does  Ancient  history  end  and  Medieval  his- 
tory begin? — At  the   dissolution  of  the  Roman  empire,  476 

A.  D. 

7.  When  does  Medieval  history  end? — About  1450  A.  D.,  when 
modern  history  begins. 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65. 


220  HISTORICAL. 

8.  What  is  the  meaning  of  ''Medieval  ?" — It  signifies  a  middle 
era  or  period  ;  instead  of  medieval  history,  we  sometimes  say 
the  history  of  the  "  middle  ages." 

9.  What  is  a  slave? — A  slave  is  a  person  deprived  of  his 
civil  rights,  and  who,  being  bought  like  one  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals, is  obliged  to  depend  on  the  will  of  his  owner. 

10.  What  are  civil  rights? — The  right  which  every  one  has 
by  nature  to  possess  his.  own  person,  to  cultivate  his  mind, 
and  to  improve  his  condition  by  any  honest  line  of  industry — 
the  enjoyment  of  such  rights  being  Z2\\Qdi  freedom. 

11.  What  were  Serfs? — Serfs  were  persons  held  in  perpet- 
ual bondage,  sometimes  as  domestic  servants,  but  more  fre- 
quently as  rural  laborers,  who  were  sold  along  with  the  es- 
tates on  which  they  lived.     Serfdom,  or  some  other  form  of 

.  slavery,  was  common  in  all  ancient  nations. 

12.  What  is  the  foundation  of  human  society? — The  family 
system,  consisting  of  a  father,  mother,  and  children  ;  a  nation 
is  but  a  collection  of  families. 

""13.  What  have  been  the  chief  forms  of  govern  7nent  ? — The 
patriarchal,  monarchical,  aristocratic,  and  democratic  forms  ; 
also  forms  of  a  mixed  variety. 

14.  Describe  the  patriarchal  form? — The  patriarchal  form  of 
government  takes  its  name  from  two  Greek  v^oxds^patria, 
a  family,  and  arch^,  authority  or  rule,  and  signifies,  a  govern- 
ment of  families  by  one  who  is  recognized  as  chief. 

15.  What  is  a  Cla7t? — It  is  a  tribe  consisting  of  allied  fami- 
lies who  render  obedience  to  a  chieftain,  to  whom  all  claim 
some  relationship. 

16.  Explain  the  monarchical  form  of  government? — It  is  a 
government  by  a  sovereign,  who  rules  either  under  some 
restriction,  or  absolutely  ;  the  term  monarch  is  from  the 
Greek  monos,  one,  and  archos,  a  chief. 

17.  What  is  a  Despot? — A  monarch  who  rules  by  his  own 
absolute  will;  the  term  autocrat  has  a  similar  meaning. 

18.  What  is  an  Emperor? — A  sovereign  who  besides  acting 
as  ruler  of  a  nation,  commands  its  armies  in  person  ;  but  this 
distinction  is  now  little  regarded,  the  title  of  emperor  being 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45    Miles.— See  page  47. 


HISTORICAL.  221 

assumed  by  various  sovereigns  in  preference  to  that  of  king. 

19.  Explam  ike  aristocratic  fonn.— It  is  a  government  by 
the  principal  persons  in  a  state,  so  called  from  the  Greek 
words  aristos,  the  best,  and  crateo,  to  govern.  Government 
by  a  few  is  called  an  oligarchy. 

20.  Is  the  aristocratic  a  common  form?—^o\  there  hav^ 
been  few  governments  purely  aristocratic  ;  in  many  instances, 
however,  an  aristocracy,  consisting  of  a  titled  nobility, 
has  been  associated  with  the  monarchical  and  democratic 
forms. 

21.  Explain  the  democratic  form.—T\iQ  democratic  is  a 
government  by  the  whole  people,  so  called  from  the  Greek 
words  demos,  the  populace ,  and  crateo,  to  govern. 

22.  What  is  a  Republic  .?— It  is  a  government  of  the  demo- 
cratic form  ;  at  the  head  of  such  governments  there  is  an 
elective  public  officer  called  a  president. 

23.  What  is  meant  by  a''  revolution  in  government  ?" — It  sig- 
nifies a  sudden  change  in  the  form  of  government,  effected 
by  some  irregular  means. 

24.  What  is  meant  by  "a  reform  in  government  ?" — It  signifies 
a  change  effected  by  peaceful  and  regular  means,  as  seems 
required  by  circumstances. 

25.  What  is'' a  Demagogue?" — A  person  who  by  oratory, 
and  various  mean  arts,  endeavors  to  be  a  popular  leader; 
the  epithet  is  from  the  Greek  de?nos,  the  populace,  and  ago 
to  lead. 

26.  What  is  anarchy? — By  anarchy  is  meant  confusion  in 
government,  along  with  popular  uproar. 

27.  What  is  "«  Military  Dictator?" — He  is  a  military 
officer,  who  in  a  time  of  confusion  skilfully  seizes  on  the 
supreme  power,  and  dictatorially  rules  by  means  of  the  army 
under  his  command — such  rule  being  usually  accepted  by 
the  nation  to  preserve  public  order. 

28.  What  is  a  Constitutional  Monarchy? — it  is  a  government 
of  a  mixed  kind,  consisting  of  a  sovereign,  an  aristocracy, 
and  a  democracy — the  rights  of  the  whole  being  defined  and 
secured  by  a  mutual  compact,  called  a  constitution. 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


222  HISTORICAL. 

29.  To  what  state  of  society  is  a  constitutional  monarchy 
adapted? — It  is  adapted  only  to  a  very  advanced  state  of  so« 
ciety,  and  had  no  existence  in  ancient  times. 

30.  What  is  7neant  by  *' Ecclesiastical  Governtnent  ?" — It  signi- 
fies the  government  of  affairs  connected  with  the  Church-^ 
the  word  ecclesiastical  being  from  the  Greek  ecclesia,  an  as- 
sembly or  calling  together. 

31.  What  is  meant  by  ''a  Theocracy  ?" — It  signifies  a  govern' 
ment  under  the  immediate  direction  of  God;  the  term  is  from 
the  Greek  theos,  God,  and    crateo,  to  govern. 

32.  What  is  meant  by  the  "Autonomy  of  states  ?" — It  signifies 
the  right  of  a  state  to  determine  what  shall  be  its  own  form 
of  government ;  the  term  is  from  the  Greek  words  autos, 
self,  and  nomos,  law  or  rule. 

33.  What  is  meant  by  "  a  Union  of  States?" — It  signifies  the 
thorough  union  of  several  states  or  kingdoms  into  one,  ac- 
cording to  mutual  agreement.  An  example  of  this  species 
of  union  is  that  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  which 
form  the  United  Kingdom. 

34.  What  is  meant  by  "  a  Federal  Union?" — It  signifies  a 
union  of  several  states  for  certain  general  purposes,  each 
state  preserving  its  own  independence,  as  far  as  local  govern- 
ment is  concerned ;  the  term  is  from  the  Latin  foedus,  a 
league. 

35.  What  is  "a  Parliament  ?" — It  is  an  assembly  constituted 
by  royal  authority  to  consult  on  the  affairs  of  the  nation,  and 
to  aid  in  enacting  laws  for  the  general  welfare ;  the  word 
parliament  is  from  the  French  parler,  to  speak. 

36.  What  is  meant  by  "the  Estates  of  the  Realm?" — It  signi- 
fies the  several  departments  of  government  concerned  in 
legislation ;  for  example,  the  estates  of  the  realm  in  the 
United  Kingdom  are  three  in  number— the  sovereign,  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  the  House  of  Commons. 

37.  What  is  meant  by  "a  Senate?" — It  is  an  assembly  of 
senators  or  persons  of  distinction  engaged  in  legislation; 
the  term  is  from  the  Latin  senex,  old,  and  originally  meant  a 


Crcesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing  was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


ANCIENT  HI  ST  OR  Y—  THE  HEBRE IVS. 


223 


body  of  elders.     In  Great  Britain,  the  Houses  of  Parliament 
are  sometimes  called  the  senate. 

38.  What  is  meant  by  "  a  Convention  of  Estates?" — It  signi' 
fies  an  assembly  convened  or  brought  together  in  some  un- 
usual emergency  without  regular  authority,  to  consult  on  na- 
tional affairs.  If  recognized  by  the  sovereign,  the  convention 
becomes  a  parliament. 

39.  What  is  meant  by  Municipal  Government  f — It  signifies 
the  government  of  a  city  or  district  by  a  corporation  of  free 
citizens;  the  term,  which  has  sometimes  an  extended  mean- 
ing, is  from  the  Latin  inuniceps,  one  who  enjoys  the  privi- 
leges of  a  freeman. 

40.  What  is  "  a  Corporatio7i  f — It  is  a  body  of  persons  in- 
corporated by  lawful  authority  to  act  as  one  individual,  with 
power  of  permanent  succession  through  the  introduction  of 
new  members  ;  the  term  is  from  the  Latin  corpus,  a  body. 

41.  What  is  a  "Colony  f" — It  is  a  portion  of  a  nation  trans- 
planted to  a  distant  part  of  the  world,  but  which  continues 
under  the  supreme  authority  of  the  parent  state — its  inhabit- 
ants, called  colonists,  retaining  all  their  civil  rights  and  privi- 
leges ;  the  term  is  from  the  Latin  colo,  to  cultivate. 

42.  Is  colonization  a  thing  of  modern  or  ancient  times  f — It  is 
as  old  as  the  origin  of  human  society,  for  it  was  the  destiny 
of  man  to  go  forth  over  the  earth  to  cultivate  and  subdue  it, 
and  to  people  it  with  inhabitants.  Ancient  history  presents 
many  examples  of  nations  arising  out  of  small  colonies. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— THE  HEBREWS. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  "Cosmogony?" — It  signifies  the  origin 
of  the  world,  being  from  the  Greek  words,  cosmos,  the  world, 
and^<?;z^^,  birth.    The  term  Genesis,  has  a  similar  meaning. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  a  "Prehistoric  Period?" —  It  signifies  a 
period  before  that  in  which  recorded  history  commences. 

3.  What  are  the  evidences  of  a  "prehistoric  period  ?" — The 
disclosures  of  geology  point  to  an  extremely  remote  period 


09 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821.— See  page  411. 


!24 


ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  V—  THE  HEBRE  WS. 


of  which  there  is  no  account,  and  the  discoveries  of  ancient 
objects  of  art  offer  evidences  of  similar  import. 

4.  What  are  aborigines  f — They  are  supposed  to  be  the  orig^- 
inal  inhabitants  of  a  country  and  their  descendants,  but  it  is 
found  in  various  instances  that  there  were  races  of  men  who 
occupied  the  land  previous  to  the  so-called  aborigines. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  nomadic  ? — It  is  a  word  from  the  Greek 
signifying  pastoral,  wandering,  and  is  applied  to  tribes  who 
live  by  feeding  flocks  and  herds,  and  who  wander  about  in 
an  unsettled  manner;  notices  of  such  occur  in  the  Bible. 

6.  When  does  history  commence? — Scripture  history  is 
usually  reckoned  to  commence  about  4004  B.  C,  but  profane 
or  civil  history,  so  far  as  it  can  be  authenticated,  reaches  only 
to  about  1000  years  b.  c.  The  whole  chronology  of  ancient 
times,  however,  is  allowed  to  be  very  uncertain. 

7.  With  what  part  of  the  world  does  ancient  history  begin  ? — ■ 
Asia  and  the  northern  part  of  Africa. 

8.  Which  nations  are  first  referred  to  ? — Hebrews,  Babylo- 
nians, Assyrians,  Chaldeans,  Egyptians,  Phoenicians,  Medes, 
Persians,  and  Lydians — among  all  of  whom  civilization  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  arts  prevailed  at  least  3000  years  ago. 

9.  Where  was  Mesopotamia  ? — It  formed  the  country  lying 
between  the  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  the  waters  of  which 
flow  into  the  Persian  Gulf ;  the  Greek  term  Mesopotamia 
signifies  the  country  between  the  rivers. 

10.  Where  was  ''  the  plain  of  Shinar  f — It  was  situated  in 
Mesopotamia,  in  which  and  in  the  neighboring  countries  the 
descendants  of  Noah,  according  to  biblical  record,  founded 
the  Babylonian,  Assyrian,  and  Chaldean  nations. 

11.  What  is  meant  by  Seinitic  nations  ? — Those  nations  which 
are  supposed  to  be  descended  from  Shem,  one  of  the  sons  of 
Noah. 

12.  Who  were  the  Hebrews? — They  were  a  Semitic  nation, 
called  Hebrews,  either  from  Eber,  the  great-grandson  of  Shem, 
or  from  Abraham,  who  was  their  progenitor. 

1 3.  What  was  the  country  inhabited  by  Abraham  ? — He  dwelt 
in  Mesopotamia,  whence  he  emigrated  about  2000  B.C.  to  the 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  V—  THE  HEBRE  WS. 


225 


land  of  Canaan,  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  called  Canaan 
from  a  son  of  Ham,  supposed  to  be  the  ancestor  of  the 
Canaanitish  nation. 

14.  Who  was  Isaac? — He  was  the  son  of  Abraham,  and 
inheritor  of  his  possessions.  The  sons  of  Isaac  were  Esau 
and  Jacob,  and  it  was  by  Jacob  that  the  main  line  of  the 
family  was  continued. 

15.  What  was  the  condition  of  life  of  Abraham  and  his  im- 
mediate descendants  ? — They  possessed  great  flocks  and  herds 
with  which  they  moved  about  as  patriarchs  at  the  head  of 
their  tribes. 

16.  Who  were  Jacob' s  sons  ? — They  were  twelve  in  number 
— Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  Judah,  Dan,  Naphtali,  Gad,  Asher, 
Issachar,  Zebulun,  Joseph,  and  Benjamin ;  Jacob  had  also  a 
daughter  named  Dinah. 

17.  What  was  the  fate  of  Joseph  ? — He  was  sold  by  his  elder 
brothers  to  Midianitish  merchants,  who  carried  him  as  a 
slave  to  Egypt,  about  1728  B.C.  In  Egypt,  he  attained  to  the 
dignity  of  a  governor  under  Pharaoh,  the  ruling  monarch. 

18.  Who  was  Israel? — Israel  was  a  name  adopted  by  Jacob 
in  consequence  of  a  remarkable  event  in  his  life,  narrated  in 
the  thirty-second  chapter  of  Genesis  ;  the  word  Israel  signi- 
fies "a  wrestler  with  God."  From  this  name,  the  Hebrew 
people  have  become  known  as  Israelites. 

19.  What  was  the  fate  of  Israel  and  his  family  ? —  Pressed 
by  famine,  they  migrated  to  Egypt,  where  they  were  received 
and  succored  by  Joseph.  Seventeen  years  after  his  arrival, 
Israel,  the  head  of  the  family,  died  in  Egypt. 

20.  What  were  the  tribes  of  Israel? — They  were  the  families 
of  the  sons  of  Israel  and  their  descendants,  and  in  time  in- 
creased to  be  a  vast  body  of  people  ;  each  tribe,  however, 
retaining  a  certain  distinctive  character. 

21.  How  were  the  tribes  of  Israel  treated  by  the  Egyptians? — 
During  the  life  of  Joseph,  and  for  some  time  afterwards,  they 
were  well  treated  ;  but  at  length  the  rulers  of  the  country 
reduced  them  to  a  state  of  bondage  or  slavery,  in  which  they 
suffered  cruel  oppression. 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000     Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503.— SeepageiSi. 


CO 

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V 

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CO 

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226  ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  Y—  THE  HEBRE  WS. 

22.  Who  was  Moses? — He  was  by  birth  an  Israelite,  being 
the  son  of  Amram,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  Exposed  as  an  infant 
in  a  basket  among  the  rushes  of  the  Nile,  he  was  found  by 
the  daughter  of  the  king,  and  was  reared  and  educated  by 
her  in  all  the  learning  of  the  Egyptians. 

23.  Mention  some  circumstances  in  the  life  of  Moses. — Having 
slain  an  Egyptian  overseer  for  maltreating  a  Hebrew  slave, 
he  fled  to  the  deserts  of  Midian,  where  he  was  hospitably 
treated  by  Jethro  the  priest,  and  married  his  daughter  Zip- 
porah.  After  staying  several  years  in  Midian,  he  returned  to 
Egypt  to  act  as  a  deliverer  of  the  Israelites,  and  lead  them  to 
the  "  Promised  Land." 

24.  What  was  the  "Promised  Land?" — It  was  the  land  of 
Canaan,  where  the  forefathers  of  the  Israelites,  Isaac  and 
Jacob,  had  dwelt,  and  to  which  God  had  promised  that  they 
should  return,  and  there  found  a  great  nation. 

25.  How  was  this  promise  fulfilled? — Vexed  with  the  plagues 
brought  on  the  land,  the  king,  or  Pharaoh,  of  Egypt  allowed 
the  Israelites  to  depart  (1491  B.  c.)  towards  the  land  of  Canaan, 
under  the  guidance  of  Moses,  who  led  them  across  the  Red 
Sea,  at  a  point  supposed  to  be  near  the  modern  Suez — the 
place  of  this  marvellous  passage  being  still  shown  to  travel- 
lers. 

26.  How  long'  were  the  Israelites  on  the  journey  to  the  Prom- 
ised  Land? — They  spent  forty  years  in  the  wildernesses  of 
Arabia,  during  which  time  many  remarkable  events  occurred, 
particularly  at  Mount  Sinai,  where  the  ten  commandments 
were  delivered  by  God  to  Moses. 

27.  Did  Moses  reach  the  Promised  Land? — No  ;  he  lived  only 
to  see  it  from  the  Mount  of  Nebo,  where  he  died. 

28.  What  was  the  character  of  Moses  ? — Besides  being 
learned  and  sagacious,  he  possessed  great  calmness,  disinter- 
estedness, patience,  perseverance,  and  meekness,  coupled 
with  keen  energy,  rapidity  of  action,  and  unfailing  courage. 

29.  What  is  the  Pentateuch  ? — Such  is  the  name  given  to 
the  first  five  books  of  the  Old  Testament ;  the  word  signifying 
in  Greek,  ^z/^  books. 

30.  Who  is  reputed  to  have  written  the  Pentateuch  ? — The 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,    in    Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Ctuds See  page   248. 


vo 

ho 


A  NCI  EN  T  HIS  TOR  V—  THE  HEBRE  WS.  227 

writing  of  the  Pentateuch  has  been  ascribed  to  Moses ;  and 
the  books  of  which  it  is  composed  are  accordingly  called 
"  the  Mosaic  record."  Whether  or  not  Moses  wrote  the  entire 
Pentateuch,  it  is  certain  that  he  was  the  organizer  and  law- 
giver of  the  Hebrew  nation,  and  he  must  be  ever  regarded  as 
one  of  the  greatest  men  of  ancient  times. 

31.  Who  was  Aaron? — He  was  the  elder  brother  of  Moses, 
and  the  first  high-priest  of  the  Israelites. 

32.  What  was  a  prophet? — A  prophet  was  a  man  inspired 
by  God,  to  utter  predictions  of  future  events,  also  to  instruct 
and  admonish  in  spiritual  things. 

33.  Who  were  the  Levz'tes  ? — They  were  descendants  of  Levi, 
and  formed  a  tribe,  the  members  of  which  were  set  apart 
for  service  in  the  sanctuary;  as  such,  they  acted  as  teachers, 
and  took  charge  of  the  sacred  vessels  and  books.  Their 
revenue  consisted  chiefly  of  an  annual  tithe  contributed  by 
the  other  tribes. 

34.  What  is  meant  by  "  tithe?" — It  signifies  a  tenth  part  of 
anything ;  such  as  the  tenth  part  of  annual  crops,  and  of  the 
increase  of  flocks  and  herds. 

35.  Why  was  Canaan  called  Palestine? — It  was  so  called 
from  the  Philistines,  who  possessed  a  portion  of  the  country. 

36.  When  did  the  name  Judea  originate  ? — After  the  return 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  from  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity ;  and  at  first  it  designated  only  that  portion 
of  Palestine  peopled  by  them,  but  gradually,  as  they  extended 
their  settlements,  the  name  was  applied  in  a  loose  way  to  the 
whole  country.  Strictly,  however,  under  the  Romans,  Judea 
designated  the  territory  comprised  under  the  ancient  kingdom 
of  Judah. 

37.  Who  was  Joshua? — He  was  the  leader  of  the  Israelites, 
whom  he  conducted  into  the  Promised  Land  about  1430  b.  c, 
which  he  conquered  and  portioned  among  the  several  tribes. 

38.  What  was  the  original  form  of  government  among  the 
Israelites? — Considered  politically,  it  was  a  federal  republic 
consisting  of  twelve  tribes;  but  considered  religiously,  it 
was  a  theocracy,  or  government  by  Go(i— that  is,  the  law^s 


o 


^olomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70.— See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


O 


228  ANCIENT  HISTOR  V—  THE  HEBRE  WS. 

were  regarded  as  divinely  enjoined,  and  the  priesthood  natur- 
ally became  their  interpreters  and  administrators. 

39.  Did  the  tribes  remain  united? — No;  soon  after  the  con-, 
quest  and  partition  of  Canaan,  they  seem  to  have  lapsed  into 
a  kind  of  tribal  self-dependence  and  anarchy,  and  were  onl)) 
saved  from  ruin  by  rulers,  called  Judges. 

40.  Who  were  the  Judges? — They  were  valiant  men  and 
women  who  liberated  their  country  from  their  oppressors, 
and  afterwards  exercised  rule  for  the  general  benefit;  such 
as  the  prophetess  Deborah,  Gideon,  Jephthah,  and  Samson. 

41.  Who  was  Samuel? — He  was  the  last  of  the  Judges  or 
chiefs  of  the  Hebrew  republic,  and  the  greatest  Hebrew 
since  the  days  of  Moses.  Samuel  marks  a  new  era  in  the 
development  of  the  religious  life  of  the  nation. 

42.  When  did  the  Hebrew  Monarchy  begin  ? — It  succeeded 
the  period  of  the  Judges,  and  began  with  Saul,  who  was  the 
first  king  (about  1080  B.  C.) 

43.  Who  was  David? — He  was  the  ninth  and  youngest  son 
of  Jesse,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Attaining  distinction  by  slay- 
ing Goliath  of  Gath,  a  gigantic  Philistine,  he  was  appointed 
king,  or  successor  of  Saul,  and  ruled  with  great  wisdom  for  a 
period  of  forty  years  (1055  to  1015  b.  c). 

44.  Who  was  Solomon  ? — He  was  the  son  and  successor  of 
David,  and  noted  for  his  wisdom  and  taste  for  magnificent 
works  of  art ;  he  built  the  celebrated  Temple  of  Jerusalem, 
and  also  the  city  of  Tadmor,  which  became  afterwards  known 
as  Palmyra — a  name  signifying  the  "  city  of  palm-trees."  This 
once  splendid  city  is  now  in  ruins. 

45.  When  was  the  Hebrew  monarchy  divided ? — In  the  reign 
of  Rehoboam,  successor  of  Solomon,  975  B.  c,  when  the 
country  was  divided  into  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  consisting 
of  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  consisting  of  the  other  ten  tribes.  In  this  state  the 
country  continued  until  the  termination  of  its  independence. 

46.  When  did  the  kijtgdom  of  Israel  terminate  ? — It  was  put 
an  end  to  under  Hoshea,  720  B.  c,  by  the  Assyrian  monarch 
Salmanassar,  who,  after  taking  the  capital  Samaria,  carried 
the  principal  inhabitants  into  captivity. 


The    Bastile   was  a    Prison   in    Paris  ;.  Destroyed,    1789. — See  page   407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity,— See  page  54. 


A  NCI  EN  T  HIS  TOR  V—  THE  HEBRE  WS,  2  2Q 

47.  Did  these  captives  ever  return  to  their  cwit  country  ? — No  ; 
they  in  all  probability  mingled  with  the  surrounding  popula- 
tion in  the  regions  where  they  were  settled,  but  their  fate  is 
uncertain,  and  hence  they  are  usually  spoken  of  as  "the  lost 
ten  tribes." 

48.  When  did  the  kingdom  of  Judah  terminate  ?— Under  the 
rule  of  King  Zedekiah,  when  the  Jews  were  conquered  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  who,  with  a  powerful 
army,  took  Jerusalem,  588  B.  c,  and  carried  the  principal  part 
of  the  inhabitants  to  Babylon. 

49.  What  is  this  event  called  in  Jewish  history? — It  is  called 
the  "Babylonish  captivity,"  and  is  pathetically  lamented  in 
the  poetry  of  the  Hebrews. 

50.  Who  tuere  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah? — They  were  two  of  the 
Hebrew  prophets  ;  and  the  books  which  bear  their  names  are 
among  the  grandest  inspired  writings.  Along  with  these 
lofty  prophetic  books  may  be  associated  that  of  Ezekiel,  a 
Hebrew  prophet  who  lived  among  the  Babylonian  captives, 
and  endeavored  to  inspire  them  with  hopes  of  recovering 
their  liberty,  and  of  attaining  prosperity  under  a  promised 
Messiah. 

51.  What  is  mea7it  by  Messiah? — It  is  a  Hebrew  word  sig- 
nifying Anointed  (consecration  by  anointing  being  an  ancient 
usage),  and  is  applied  in  the  Old  Testament  to  the  great  De- 
liverer and  Saviour  whom  the  Jews  expected  to  be  sent  by 
God. 

52.  Who  was  Daniel? — He  was  one  of  the  Hebrew  captives 
at  Babylon,  and,  by  his  great  wisdom,  gained  the  favor  of 
Cyrus,  who  at  Daniel's  intercession  liberated  his  countrymen, 
and  allowed  them  to  depart. 

53.  Did  all  the  Jewish  captives  at  Babylon  avail  themselves  oj 
the  permission  to  depart? — No  ;  only  about  40,000  persons  re- 
turned to  Palestine. 

54.  How  long  were  the  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
in  captivity  ? — Reckoning  from  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  and 
the  carrying  off  of  Zedekiah,  about  50  years  ;  but  from  a  pre- 
vious invasion  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (606  B.  c),  about  70 
years. 

10  A 


O 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian   Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


230  ANCIENT  HISTOR  V—  THE  HEBRE  WS. 

55.  Did  the  Jews  resume  their  mdepe7ide7ice  as  a  nation  on 
their  return  from  captivity  f—^o  ;  their  country  had  been  in- 
corporated with  the  Persian  empire  ;  but  they  rebuilt  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  exercised  their  religious  worship. 

56.  What  was  the  subsequent  fate  of  the  Jews  ? — They  were 
exposed  to  many  vicissitudes  in  contending  against  Egypt- 
ians, Syrians,  and  others — their  most  heroic  exertions  being 
under  the  Maccabees. 

57.  Who  were  the  Maccabees  ?— They  were  leaders  of  the 
Jewish  nation— the  first  of  them  was  Judas  Maccabeus,  who 
led  the  national  hosts  to  victory  against  the  Syrians ;  after 
his  death,  his  brothers  completed  the  deliverance  of  the 
people,  145  B.  c.  The  heroism  of  the  Maccabees  is  considered 
to  be  a  grand  feature  in  Jewish  history. 

58.  When  did  the  Jews  submit  to  the  Romans  ? — In  the  year 
63  B.  C,  when  Jerusalem  was  captured  by  Pompey,  and  the 
country  put  under  Roman  governors  ;  the  people,  however, 
were  still  allowed  to  exercise  their  religious  observances. 

59.  When  was  Jesus  Christ  born  ? — Jesus  was  born  at  Beth- 
lehem in  Judea,  during  the  governorship  of  Herod  in  the 
reign  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Augustus ;  the  exact  period  is 
believed  to  have  been  four  years  before  what  is  usually  called 
the  Christian  era. 

60.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  Christ? — It  is  from  the 
Greek  and  signifies  Anointed,  and  therefore  corresponds  with 
the  Hebrew  term  Messiah. 

61.  Did  the  Jews  remain  satisfied  under  the  Roman  sway  f— 
No ;  they  endeavored  to  recover  their  independence  by 
means  of  an  insurrection,  in  which  they  were  unsuccessful, 
and  Jerusalem  was  captured  by  Titus,  a  Roman  general. 

62.  When  was  Jerusalem  captured  by  Titus? — In  the  year 
70  A.  D„  when  the  Temple  was  utterly  destroyed,  the  city  laid 
in  ruins,  and  the  people  scattered. 

63.  Were  the  Jews  utterly  dispersed  at  this  time  ? — No ;  there 
remained  a  residue  in  the  country  until  135  a.  d.,  when,  in 
consequence  of  a  fresh  insurrection,  they  were  finally  dis- 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793     to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815. — See   page    368. 


CQ 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— THE  HEBREWS.  --»  ^ 


persed,  and  have  ever  since  been  exiles  in  all  parts  of  the 
earth. 

64.  For  what  is  the  civilized  world  indebted  to  the  Jews  ? — For 
their  religion,  which  is  the  basis  of  Christianity,  and  for  their 
careful  preservation  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

65.  What  were  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  Jewish  Re- 
ligion?— Along  with  certain  ceremonial  observances,  and  the 
expectation  of  a  coming  Messiah  or  Saviour,  the  Jewish  faith 
consisted  in  a  belief  in  one  Supreme  being,  God,  the  creator 
and  preserver,  invisible,  eternal,  almighty,  and  of  infinite 
wisdom. 

66.  What  is  Monotheism .?— It  is  the  belief  in  one  God,  as 
professed  by  the  Hebrews,  and  is  so  called  from  the  Greek 
monos,  one,  and  theos,  god. 

67.  Were  the  Hebrews  singular  in  their  monotheistic  belief  f 
— Yes  ;  they  seem  to  have  been  the  first  people  who  attained 
to  a  correct  knowledge  of  God  ;  all  the  nations  about  them 
were  polytheists  and  idolaters. 

68.  What  is  a  Polytheist  ? — A  person  who  believes  in  many 
gods  ;  the  term  is  from  the  Gx^^\i, polys,  many,  and  theos,  ^oA. 

69.  What  is  an  idolater  ? — A  person  who  worships  idols  or 
representatives  of  some  imaginary  being. 

70.  Did  the  Hebrews  adhere  uniformly  to  monotheism  ? — No  ; 
we  are  told  by  the  Scriptures  that  they  had  a  constant  ten- 
dency to  lapse  into  idolatry,  but  were  "turned  again"  unto 
God  by  the  remonstrances  of  the  prophets. 

71.  Who  were  the  Pharisees? — They  formed  a  sect  of  the 
Jews,  and  assumed  that  by  a  punctilious  attention  to  cere- 
monies, they  were  more  righteous  than  others;  the  term 
Pharisee  is  from  the  Yithx&vf  parash,  to  separate. 

72.  Who  were  the  Sadducees? — They  were  a  certain  class  of 
believers  among  the  Jews,  who  rejected  the  doctrine  of  future 
rewards  and  punishments,  and  whose  tenets  inculcated  the 
strictest  morals  ;  they  derived  their  designation  from  Sadoc, 
a  Jewish  rabbi  (200  b.  c). 

73.  What  is  meant  by  "  Gentiles .?" — It  is  the  name  given  in 


231  « 


i 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See     page     143. 


232        A  NCI  EN  T  HIS  TOR  Y—BA  B  YL  ON  I  A  NS,  E  TC. 

the  New  Testament  to  heathen  nations  ;  and  is  derived  from 
the  \.2iWxi,gens,  a  nation  or  race. 

74.  What  is  Revelation? — It  is  the  reveahng  or  discovery 
of  anything,  but  more  especially  signifies  the  revealing  of 
spiritual  truths  by  God  to  man,  through  the  agency  of  in- 
spired prophets— the  whole  Bible  being  hence  called  Revel- 
ation, or  the  Revealed  will  of  God. 

75.  Who  was  Flavins  Josephus  f — He  was  a  learned  Jew  of 
the  first  century,  who  wrote  a  History  of  the  Wars  of  the 
Jews,  in  which  he  gives  an  account  of  the  siege  and  capture 
of  Jerusalem  ;  he  likewise  composed  a  work  on  Jewish  Anti- 
quities ;  both  works,  written  in  Hebrew  and  Greek,  have  been 
translated  into  English. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— THE  BABYLONIANS,  AS- 
SYRIANS, EGYPTIANS,  AND  OTHERS. 

1.  Who  were  the  Babylonians? — They  were  the  inhabitants 
of  Babylonia,  a  country  taking  its  name  from  the  city  of 
Babel,  or  Babylon,  built  on  the  Euphrates  by  Nimrod. 

2.  Who  were  the  Assyrians? — They  were  the  inhabitants  of 
the  country  north  of  Babylonia,  called  Assyria  from  Asshur, 
the  son  of  Shem,  who  built  the  city  of  Nineveh,  on  the 
Tigris. 

3.  At  what  time  were  the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  nations 
fotmded ?—Aho\\t  2500  B.C.  The  period  of  their  greatest 
glory  was  about  1000  B.  C,  when  their  power  was  considera- 
bly extended  over  the  East,  and  when  Babylon  and  Nineveh 
were  populous  and  splendid  cities. 

4.  Where  was  Chaldea  ? — It  was  a  district  near  the  head  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  which  became  absorbed  in  Babylonia,  but 
little  is  distinctly  known  about  it.  In  ancient  history,  the 
name  Chaldeans  is  given  to  a  learned  and  priestly  class  of 
men  among  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  who  were  skilled 
in  astronomical  knowledge. 

5.  Of  what  religion  were  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  ? — 
It  was  essentially  a  worship  of  the  powers  of  nature,  among 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long, — See    page    302. 


ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  Y—BA  B  YL  ONI  AN  S,  ETC.        233 

which  the  sun  held  a  prominent  place.  These  powers  were 
adored  under  a  multitude  of  forms  and  emblems;  the  Assy- 
rians and  Babylonians  seem  also  to  have  worshipped  idols 
representing  Swiftness,  Strength,  Intelligence,  and  other 
qualities,  as  is  shown  by  various  ancient  sculptures. 

6.  Mention  some  of  the  ancient  sculptures  of  Assyria. — The 
figure  of  a  lion  with  the  head  of  a  man,  and  great  spread-out 


Winged  Lion. 


wings,  also  the  figure  of  a  man  with  the  head  of  an  eagle — 
examples  of  which  figures,  brought  from  the  ruins  of  Nin- 
eveh, are  seen  in  various  museums. 

7.  Who  was  Semiramisf — She  is  said  to  have  been  a  power- 
ful female  sovereign  of  Assyria,  but  the  account  of  her  is 
perhaps  mythical. 

8.  Who  was  Sardanapalus  ? — He  was  a  luxurious  sovereign 
of  the  Assyrian  empire.     He  dwelt  in  Nineveh,  where,  being  ^ 
attacked   by   Medes,   Babylonians,   and   others,   he   died  by 
setting  fire  to  his  palace,  and  burning  all  it  contained,  783  b.  c. 

9.  Who  was  Sennacherib ? — He  was  one  of  the  successors 
of  Sardanapalus  as  king  of  Assyria;  he  endeavored  to  ex- 
tend his  conquests  over  Egypt  and  Judea,  but  both  countries 
were  delivered  by  the  miraculous  destruction  of  his  host 
before  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kings,  xix.) 

10.  Who  were  the  Medes  f — They  were  a  powerful  nation 
on  the  east  of  Assyria,  and  along  with  the  Babylonians,  they 

Q 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278 


03 


234       ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—BAB  YLONIANS,  E TC, 


captured  and  destroyed  Nineveh,  about  625  b.  c.  The  Medes 
had  previously  subdued  the  Persians;  but  these  having  re- 
volted under  Cyrus,  gained  the  ascendency,  and  commenced 
a  series  of  extraordinary  conquests. 

11.  Why  are  uncka?igeable  laws  said  to  resemble  the  laws  oj 
the  Medes  and  Persians? — Because  in  Daniel,  chap.  vi.  8,  it  is 
expressly  stated  that  the  "  law  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  al- 
tereth  not" — in  other  words,  the  Persian  monarch  was  an- 
ciently thought  to  be  infallible. 

12.  Who  was  Croesus? — He  was  the  king  of  Lydia,  a  country 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  renowned  for  his  prodigious  wealth.  Mis- 
led by  evil  counsel,  he  levied  war  against  Cyrus,  was  de- 
feated, and  his  kingdom  incorporated  with  Persia,  546  B.C. 
His  wealth  has  given  rise  to  the  saying  "as  rich  as  Croesus." 

13.  Who  was  Belshazzar? — He  was  king  of  the  united  empire 
of  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  which  was  conquered  by  Cyrus 
538  B.  c,  and  added  to  the  already  vast  Persian  empire,  which 
was  now  the  greatest  that  had  existed  in  the  world.  Cyrus 
died  529  B.  c. 

14.  What  was  the  ancient  na7ne  of  Persia? — The  greater 
part  of  Persia  was  included  in  a  large  region  extending  into 
the  centre  of  Asia,  and  called  Ariana,  or  Airyana,  from  which 
Iran,  the  modern  native  name  of  Persia,  is  derived.  From 
this  region  it  is  believed  that  in  very  remote  times  successive 
swarms  of  colonists  migrated  and  peopled  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  and  also  India.  These  peoples  are  therefore  spoken 
of  as  the  Aryan  races,  and  their  languages  are  found  to  have 
a  family-likeness. 

15.  Who  was  Cambyses? — He  was  the  son  and  successor  of 
Cyrus ;    maniacal  and  imperious,  he  conquered  Egypt,  and 

3  after  a  reign  of  a  few  years,  died  521  b.  c. 

16.  Who  was  Darius  I.  ? — He  was  chosen  successor  to  Cam- 
byses ;  and  under  him  the  walls  of  Babylon  were  destroyed. 

17.  What  was  the  extent  of  the  Persian  empire  in  the  reign 
of  Darius? — It  stretched  from  Egypt  to  India,  and  com- 
prehended the  whole  of  Palestine,  Phoenicia,  Lydia,  Arabia, 
Media,  Babylonia,  and  Assyria — ^all  parts  of  this  overgrown 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See   page    133. 


ANCIENT HISTOR  Y—BAB  YLONIANS,  ETC.       235 

empire  being  ruled  with  despotic  violence,  and  subjected  to 
excessive  exactions. 

18.  Who  was  Zoroaster? — He  was  a  sage  who  originated,  or, 
more  properly,  remodelled,  the  religion  professed  in  Iran,  or 
Persia,  and  which  is  now  known  as  the  religion  of  the 
Parsees. 

19.  Describe  the  religion  taught  by  Zoroaster. — It  embraced 
a  belief  in  two  opposite  principles,  good  and  evil.  The  prin- 
ciple of  good  was  personified  as  Ormuzd,  and  the  principle 
of  evil  as  Ahriman.  The  direct  objects  of  worship  were  the 
sun,  light,  and  fire,  as  manifestations  of  the  good  principle. 

20.  What  is  meant  by  "the  god  Baalf" — Baal,  or  Bel,  was  the 
name  of  a  god  who  personified  the  sun  or  vivilier  of  nature, 
and  was  worshipped  by  various  ancient  nations. 

21.  What  city  was  nained  from  Baal  ? — Baalbek,  a  city  in 
Syria,  which  was  afterwards  called  by  the  Greeks  Helio polls 
— from  Helios,  the  sun,  and  polis,  a  city.  Like  many  other 
cities  in  the  East,  Baalbek  is  now  in  ruins. 

22.  Who  were  the  Magi? — They  were  priests  of  the  Persian 
form  of  worship,  and  lighted  fires  in  honor  of  Baal  on  the 
tops  of  mountains,  as  part  of  their  religious  observances. 

23.  When  did  Darius  I.,  king  of  Persia,  die? — He  died  485, 
B.  C,  having  five  years  previously  been  defeated  at  Marathon 
in  an  attempt  to  subdue  Greece. 

24.  What  was  Persepolis  ?—\X.  was  the  chief  city  of  Persia, 
and  was  adorned  with  many  fine  buildings,  as  is  still  seen  by 
its  magnificent  ruins  ;  its  site  is  a  few  miles  north  of  Shiraz, 
east  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 

25.  Who  was  Xerxes?— He  was  one  of  the  sons  of  Darius, 
and  succeeded  to  his  power;  he  also  attempted  the  conquest 
of  Greece,  and  was  likewise  defeated ;  he  died  464  B.  c. 

26.  Who  was  Artaxerxes? — He  was  a  son  and  successor  of 
Xerxes,  and  is  believed  to  be  the  "Ahasuerus"  mentioned  in 
Scripture.  Under  his  descendant,  Darius  III.,  the  Persian 
empire  was  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great,  who  also 
made  himself  master  of  Parthia,  Phoenicia,  Egypt,  Syria,  and 
other  countries,  332  to  330  B.  c. 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle.— See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist. — See  page  65. 


n 


236       ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—BAB  YLONIANS,  E  TC. 

27.  In  what  year  did  Alexander  the  Great  make  his  triu7nphal 
entrajtce  into  Babylon? — In  the  year  331  B.  c;  but  Babylon  was 
already  almost  in  ruins,  and  has  never  recovered. 

28.  Who  were  the  Parthians  ? — They  were  a  people  of  Asia, 
subdued  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  who  are  renowned  for 
their  adroitness  in  shooting  with  bows  and  arrows  on  horse- 
back while  retreating;  weapons  thus  shot  or  thrown  back- 
wards are  spoken  of  as  "  Parthian  darts." 

29.  Who  were  the  Phceniciansf — They  were  the  inhabitants 
of  Phoenicia,  a  country  on  the  Mediterranean,  adjoining  Pales 
tine  ;  and  were   noted  for  their  mercantile   pursuits.     The) 
had  several  important  seaports,  including  Tyre  and   Sidon, 
and  are  said  to  have  visited  the  British  Islands. 

30.  Where  was  the  Tarshish  of  Scripture? — It  is  believed  to 
have  been  a  district  and  city  in  the  south  of  Spain,  facing  the 
Atlantic,  called  Tartessus  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Under  tiie  name  Tarshish,  this  district  formed  the  limit  of 
the  western  world  as  known  to  the  Hebrews. 

31.  Who  were  the  Egyptians  ? — They  were  the  inhabitants 
of  Egypt,  called  by  the  Hebrews  Mizraim,  which  consisted 
chiefly  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  They  seem  to  have  been 
allied  to  the  Semitic  races,  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  Ne- 
gro races  on  the  other. 

32.  When  does  the  history  of  Egypt  commence — About  the 
same  time  as  that  of  Assyria,  2500  B.  c. ;  but  some  make  it 
much  earlier. 

33.  Who  were  the  Pharaohs  ? — The  title  Pharaoh  was  equiv- 
alent to  king,  and  was  given  to  a  long  series  of  sovereigns 
of  different  dynasties  in  Egypt.  The  Pharaoh  in  whose  reign 
the  Israelites  departed  from  Egypt,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
Thothmes  III. 

34.  Who  was  Mefnnon? — He  was  a  celebrated  Egyptian, 
commemorated  by  a  gigantic  sitting  figure  in  stone,  which, 
by  some  internal  peculiarity  of  construction,  gave  forth 
mysterious  sounds ;  the  remains  of  this  remarkable  figure  stilJ 
exist  near  Thebes. 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles.— See  page  47. 


ANCIENT  HI  ST  OR  Y—BAB  YLONIANS,  E  TC. 


^Z1 


35.  WJio  was  Cheops? — He  is  said  to  have  been  the  foundei 
of  the  first  or  Great  Pyramid. 

36.  What  are  the  Pyramids? — They  are  huge  structures  \j\. 
masonry,  with  a  square  basis,  terminating  in  a  point,  and  are 
believed  to  have  been  erected  as  monumental  tombs  o.  vhe 
Pharaohs ;  these  wonderful  buildings  are  believed  to  be  Irom 
three  thousand  to  lour  thousand  years  old. 


The  Pyramids. 

37.  What  are  hieroglyphics  ? — A  kind  of  writing  in  use  among 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  found  engraved  on  the  oldest 
monuments ;  the  characters  consist  of  figures  of  animals  and 
other  objects,  and  represent  ideas  ;  a  key  to  their  meaning 
has  been  found  in  recent  times. 

38.  Which  were  the  chief  cities  of  ancietit  Egypt  ? — Mo<ti  .%his, 
in  Middle  Egypt,  near  the  modern  city  of  Cairo,  and  Thebes, 
in  Upper  Egypt,  at  both  which  cities  there  were  magnificent 
temples  and  other  buildings. 

39.  Who  was  Sesostris? — He  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
Pharaohs,  and  is  celebrated  in  various  legends  and  sculptures 
as  having  achieved  vast  conquests  and  executed  many  great 
works  and  improvements. 

40.  What  was  the  religiott  of  the  Egyptians? — They  wer^ 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


238       ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—BAB  YLONIANS,  E  TC. 

polytheists,  and  worshipped  a  number  of  gods,  such  as  Am- 
nion, Apis,  Isis,  Osiris,  and  others.  They  seem  to  have  had 
a  great  regard  for  a  particular  kind  of  beetle,  which,  copied 
as  a  gem,  they  wore  about  their  persons,  and  wrapped  up  with 
their  mummies. 

41 .  Under  what  forms  were  the  Egyptian  gods  worshipped?^ 
Ammon  was  represented  by  the  figure  of  a  man  with  the 
twisted  horns  of  a  ram — from  which  is  derived  the  term  am- 
monite — now  given  to  fossil  shells  twisted  like  a  horn.  Apis, 
the  chief  divinity,  was  a  live  bull,  black,  with  certain  white 
marks.  From  being  accustomed  to  the  sacred  bull  of  the 
Egyptians,  the  Israelites  seem  to  have  lapsed  into  the  tem- 
porary idolatry  of  the  golden  calf.  It  is  thought  that  the 
sun,  the  fruitfulness  of  the  earth,  and  the  flocks  and  herds 
which  constituted  the  principal  wealth  of  a  nomadic  people, 
were  emblematized  in  the  various  Egyptian  gods. 

42.  Who  was  Pasht  f — She  was  one  of  the  inferior  deities 
of  the  Egyptians. 

43.  What  is  a  mummy  f — It  is  any  dead  animal  or  human  body 
dried,  embalmed,  and  wrapped  up  for  preservation  in  pyra- 
mids and  tombs.  Some  of  these  mummies  have  been  brought 
to  Europe,  and  are  to  be  seen  in  museums. 

44.  What  was  the  state  of  advancement  in  the  arts  in  Egypt  ? 
— Great  advances  were  made  in  the  arts  of  building,  carving, 
manufactures  of  different  kinds,  agriculture,  and  sundry  refined 
usages ;  but  slavery  prevailed,  and  learning  was  confined  to 
certain  castes. 

45.  What  are  castes? — Certain  orders  of  people  who  are 
by  law  and  usage  fixed  to  a  particular  station  in  life,  su(5h  as 
a  caste  of  laborers,  a  caste  of  soldiers,  a  caste  of  priests,  a 
caste  of  rulers,  and  so  on. 

46.  What  was  it  that  broke  down  thi  odious  systems  of  slavery 
and  caste  in  ancient  times? — It  was  Christianity — the  bene- 
ficent principles  of  the  Gospel — which  held  all  men  to  be 
equal  in  the  sight  of  God. 

47.  When  did  the  Egyptian  power  terminate? — The  nation 
ceased  to  be  independent  in  the  year  525  b.  c»,  when  it  was 


Crcesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing  was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John   Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—BAB  YLONIANS,  E  TC.       239 

annexed  to  the  Persian  empire,  which  from  332  to  330  b.  c. 
was  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great. 

48.  Who  was  Alexander  the  Great? — He  was  the  son  of 
Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  and  completed  the  conquest  of 
Greece,  after  which  he  extended  his  conquests  into  Asia  and 
Africa.  By  means  of  these  conquests  he  introduced  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  arts  and  language  of  Greece  into  Egypt,  Assyria, 
and  other  distant  countries.  Among  his  various  great  works 
he  founded  the  city  of  Alexandria,  in  Egypt. 

49.  Where  was  Macedon  ? — It  was  a  small  country  lying  to 
the  north  of  Greece,  now  constituting  part  of  Turkey  in 
Europe.     The  city  of  Pella  was  the  capital  of  Macedon. 

50.  What  was  the"  Macedonian  phalanx  ?"-  -It  was  a  square 
and  solid  battalion  of  8,000  soldiers,  with  their  shields  and 
pikes  so  united  as  to  present  an  almost  impenetrable  wall 
of  armor. 

51.  What  was  the  natne  of  the  celebrated  horse  of  Alexander 

the  Great? — It  was  Bucephalus  ;  and  this  animal,  of  great 
strength  and  beauty,  would  suffer  no  one  to  mount  him, 
until  Alexander  leaped  on  his  back,  and  ever  afterwards  the 
animal  carried  him  through  his  campaigns.  Bucephalus  died 
of  a  wound,  and  was  buried  with  marked  honor. 

52.  When  did  Alexander  the  Great  die?— He  died  in  the 
year  323  b.  c,  in  returning  from  the  conquest  of  a  part  of 
India.  After  his  death,  divine  honors  were  paid  to  him  in 
Egypt  and  Greece.  His  body  was  consigned  to  a  golden 
coffin,  and  entombed  in  a  stone  sarcophagus  at  Alexandria. 

53.  What  became  of  the  great  Asiatic  provinces  acquired  by 
Alexander  ?— AX  his  death,  they  were  divided  among  his  gen- 
erals, and  formed  independent  kingdoms  until  subdued  by  the 
Roman  power. 

54.  Who  was  Mithridates  ?—T:\\Qre  were  several  kings 
of  that  name  who  ruled  over  Pontus,  Armenia,  and  some 
other  Asiatic  countries  which  had  assumed  independence 
after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  chief  and  last 
of  the  name  was  Mithridates  the  Great,  who  was  first  sub- 
dued by  the  Roman  general,  Lucullus  (famed  for  his  luxuri- 
ous living),  and   alterwards  stripped  of  his   sovereignty  by 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821. — See  page  411. 


240       ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—BAB  YLONIANS,  E  TC. 

Pompey.     Soon  after  this  event,  Mithridates   killed  himself 
68  B.  c. 

55.  Who  were  the  Seleucidcs?— They  wqxq  descendants  oi 
Seleucus  Nicanor,  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  who  invested  him  with  the  government  of  Babylonia 
and  Media.  At  the  death  of  Alexander  Seleucus  established 
himself  as  king  of  Syria,  and  this  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidse 
continued  until  it  was  extinguished  by  Pompey,  and  added, 
with  other  shattered  portions  of  the  Greek  empire  in  the 
east,  to  the  dominions  of  Rome. 

56.  Who  was  Antiochus  Epiphanes  ? — He  was  one  of  the 
Seleucidae,  infamous  for  those  oppressions  of  the  Jews  which 
caused  them  to  revolt  under  the  heroic  Maccabees.  Heciid 
164  B.  C.  Of  him  and  his  predecessor,  Antiochus  III.,  there 
are  notices  in  the  First  Book  of  Maccabees,  and  the  fate  of 
the  family  is  referred  to  in  the  eleventh  chapter  of  the  Book 
of  Daniel. 

57.  Who  were  the  Ptolemies  f—T\\^y  were  Greek  kings  of 
Egypt,  commencing  at  the  death  of  Alexander.  The  series 
of  Ptolemies,  thirteen  in  number,  terminated  with  the  tri- 
umph of  the  Roman  power. 

58.  What  was  the  condition  of  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies  f — 
It  was  generally  prosperous,  more  particularly  during  the 
rule  of  the  first  three  Ptolemies,  who  were  patrons  of  learn- 
ing, and,  under  whom  the  Alexandrian  school  became  famous. 

59.  What  was  the  Alexandrian  school? — It  was  the  system 
of  philosophy  and  general  learning  which  sprung  up  at  Alex- 
andria, and  was  encouraged  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  who 
founded  the  extensive  library  and  museum  of  Alexandria; 
by  these  means  Alexandria  rivalled  Athens,  and  was  one  of 
the  greatest  seats  of  instruction  in  ancient  times. 

60.  What  was  the  Pharos  of  Alexandria  ? — It  was  a  cele- 
brated light-house  on  the  island  of  Pharos,  near  Alexandria, 
considered  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world  ;  it  v/as  erected 
300  B.  c.  The  term  Pharos  is  hence  sometimes  used  for  light- 
house ;  and  hence  also  the  French  term  Phare, 


"  Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult    Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y— GREECE. 


241 


ANCIENT    HISTORY— GREECE,    ITS    LEGENDS 
AND  MYTHOLOGY. 

1.  Where  was  Greece  situated? — It  was  a  small  country  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  consisting  chiefly  of  a  peninsula — the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, some  territory  north  of  the  peninsula,  and  several 
islands;  the  name  anciently  given  to  the  whole  country  was 
Hellas. 

2.  H(yw  did  the  name  Greece  originate? — Our  term  Greece 
is  from  Grcecia,  the  name  first  used  by  the  Romans,  probably 
from  the  small  tribe  Graikoi,  with  whom  they  had  become 
acquainted  at  an  early  period.  The  people  of  Greece  called 
themselves  Hellenes,  which  till  this  day  they  prefer. 

3.  Who  were  the  Pelasgians? — They  are  assumed  to  have 
been  a  race  of  primitive  settlers  in  Greece  and  adjoining 
countries,  but  nothing  is  known  with  certainty  regarding 
them. 

4.  Of  what  do  the  early  accounts  of  Hellas  or  Greece  consist  ? 
— They  consist  chiefly  of  mythological  legends  and  fables, 
narrated  by  poets,    particularly  Homer  and  Hesiod. 

5.  What  is  Mythology? — It  is  a  system  of  fables  or  myths — 
a  myth  being  a  fable  or  story  invented  to  explain  some  cir- 
cumstance of  which  there  exists  no  proper  account. 

6.  What  was  the  particular  nature  of  the  Greek  mythology  ? 
— It  was  composed  of  a  vast  variety  of  legends  concerning 
imaginary  personages  represented  by  sculptured  figures, 
which  were  set  up  publicly  as  objects  of  veneration. 

7.  Had  the  Greeks  any  knowledge  of  a  Supreme  Being,  such 
as  that  possessed  by  the  Hebrews? — There  is  no  conclusive  evi- 
dence of  their  having  had  any  such  knowledge  ;  though  they 
spoke  of  Zeus  as  the  sovereign  of  the  universe,  they  were 
practically  polytheists,  and  offered  sacrifices  in  temples  to 
numerous  gods,  demigods,  and  goddesses,  believing  these  to 
exercise  a  control  over  human  affairs. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  "Hero-worship?" — It  is  a  system  of  pay- 
ing honors  to  heroes  who  have  distinguished  themselves  by 
their  valor,  or  some  other  estimable  quality;  and  it  is  be- 
lieved that  this  system,  carried  to  an  excess,  in  which  de- 


The   Earth's      Surface     is      200,000,000     Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


242  ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y— GREECE. 

ceased  heroes  were  clothed  with  divine  attributes,  formed  3 
foundation  to  much  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  mythology. 
The  raising  of  a  mortal  to  the  rank  of  a  god  was  called  his 
apotheosis. 

9.  Who  was  Deucalion  .?— According  to  the  Greek  myth,  he 
was  a  person  who  saved  himself  and  his  wife  in  an  ark  which 
he  built,  when  all  Hellas  was  submerged  by  a  flood  caused 
by  Zeus,  which  lasted  nine  days.  By  Deucalion  and  his  wife 
Pyrrha,  the  earth  was  said  to  have  been  repeopled. 

10.  What  did  the  Greeks  inean  by  the  "  Golden  4^^.?"— They 
had  a  fanciful  notion  that  the  history  of  the  world  was  divided 
into  ages,  the  first  of  which  was  the  Golden  Age,  when  there 
was  universal  goodness,  happiness,  and  abundance ;  after 
which  came  successively  the  silver,  bronze,  and  iron  ages— 
in  this  last  there  being  war,  rapine,  crime,  and  every  sort  of 
misery. 

11.  What  was  the  Argonautic  Expedition? — It  was  a  nota- 
ble event  in  the  legendary  history  of  Greece,  and  was  under- 
taken by  a  number  of  heroes  under  the  command  of  a  leader 
called  Jason ;  the  object  was  to  bring  a  golden  fleece  from 
Colchis,  which  was  there  hanging  on  a  tree  in  the  grove  of 
Mars,  guarded  by  a  sleepless  dragon.  Those  who  engaged  in 
this  enterprise,  which  proved  successful,  are  called  the  Ar- 
gonauts, from  having  sailed  in  the  ship  Argo. 

12.  Who  was  Hercules? — He  was  a  mortal  of  godlike  char- 
acter, the  ideal  of  human  pe  rfection  and  bodily  strength, 
whose  life  was  devoted  to  the  performance  of  great  and 
virtuous  deeds ;  as  the  most  celebrated  hero  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  there  are  innumerable  legends  descriptive  of  his 
courageous  and  patriotic  actions,  some  of  which  are  best 
known  as  "the  labors  of  Hercules." 

1 3.  What  were  "the  Labors  of  Hercules  ?" — They  were  twel  ve 
in  number:  i.  He  killed  a  furious  lion  by  tearing  its  jaws 
with  his  hands  ;  2.  He  killed  the  Lernaean  hydra,  a  frightful 
serpent  with  a  number  of  heads;  3.  He  caught  alive  an  enor- 
mous wild  boar ;  4.  He  pursued  and  seized  a  large  and  fleet  stag, 
which  had  brazen  feet  and  golden  horns ;  5.  He  killed  certain 
foul  birds  which  lived  on  human   flesh  ;  6.  He,  in  one  day, 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People. — See  page  276. 


V 


AFRICAN    AMAZONS,    OR    FEMALE    WARRIORS,    IN    BATTLE.- 


-A3- 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was    the    Food    of  the   Gods See  page    248. 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y— GREECE, 


243 


cleaned  out  the  stable  of  Augeas,  king  of  Elis,  which  shel« 
tered  three  thousand  oxen,  and  had  not  been  purified  fof 
thirty  years — this  feat  being  performed  by  sending  the  rivei 
Alpheus  through  the  stable  ;  7.  He  brought  alive  to  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus the  bull  of  Crete,  which  breathed  fire  from  its  nos- 
trils ;  8.  He  killed  Diomedes,  an  infamous  tyrant,  and  carried 
off  his  mares  ;  9.  He  killed  the  .nonster,  Geryon,  and  brought 
away  his  herds  to  Argos  ;  10.  He  conquered  the  queen  of  the 
Amazons,  a  nation  of  female  warriors,  and  brought  away  her 
girdle  ;  11.  He  descended  to  Tartarus,  and  dragged  Cerberus, 
a  ferocious  dog  with  three  heads,  from  beneath  the  throne 
of  Pluto  ;  12.  He  killed  the  dragon  which  watched  over  the 
gardens  of  the  Hesperides,  and  brought  away  the  golden 
apples. — By  the  Greeks,  Hercules  was  called  Heracles,  and 
they  styled  his  descendants  the  Heracleidae. 

14.  What  is  meant  by  the  ''Pillars  of  Hercules  f " — According 
to  the  myth,  Hercules  clove  asunder  a  mountain,  which 
closed  the  Mediterranean,  and  so  opened  the  sea  to  the  Atlan- 
tic. The  remains  of  the  mountain  are  Calpe,  on  the  European, 
and  Abyla,  on  the  African  side  of  the  Strait,  and  these  two 
heights  are  denominated  the  columns  or  pillars  of  Hercules. 

15.  What  was  Atlantis? — It  was  a  fabulous  island  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  lying  off  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  from  which 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  said  to  take  its  name. 

16.  Who  was  Amphitryon? — He  was  one  of  the  legendary 
heroes  of  Greece,  respecting  whom  there  are  some  amusing 
fables,  particularly  one  in  which  Jupiter  is  represented  as 
having  personated  Amphitryon  while  he  was  some  days 
absent  from  home.  This  incident,  which  makes  it  appear  as 
if  Amphitryon  was  in  two  places  at  once,  has,  with  some 
other  particulars,  afiforded  a  prolific  theme  for  dramatists  in 
both  ancient  and  modern  times.  Some  circumstances  in  the 
history  of  this  fabulous  hero  have  given  the  name  Amphitryon 
to  any  courteous  host. 

17.  What  was  the  Trojan  war? — According  to  the  poet 
Homer,  it  was  a  war  against  the  city  of  Ilium,  or  Troy,  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  was  caused  by  Paris,  sod  of  King  Priam, 
carrying  away  Helen,  wifeof  the  Spartan,  Menelaus.    Accord- 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12. — See  page   242. 


244  ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y— GREECE. 

ingto  the  legend,  the  Greeks  recovered  Helen  and  destroyed 
Troy.    The  date  of  this  doubtful  event  is  1 184  b.  c. 

18.  Who  was  U/yssesf—He  was  a  sagacious  and  artful 
Greek,  who  entered  Troy  in  disguise,  and  stole  away  a  statue 
of  Minerva,  called  the  Palladium  ;  there  being  a  belief  that 
the  city  would  remain  invincible  so  long  as  it  possessed  this 
famed  statue,  which  had  been  the  gift  of  Jupiter. 

19.  IV/io  was  Nestor? — He  was  a  venerable  old  man,  re^ 
nowned  for  his  wisdom,  who  acted  as  counsellor  to  the 
Grecian  chiefs  at  the  siege  of  Troy. 

20.  Who  was  Achilles? — He  was  the  son  of  Peleus  and 
Thetis,  a  sea-nymph,  who  dipped  him  in  the  river  Styx,  and 
so  made  him  invulnerable  in  all  parts  except  the  heel,  by 
which  she  held  him.  As  a  young  and  warlike  hero,  he  as- 
sisted at  the  siege  of  Troy,  on  which  occasion  he  bore  a  cele- 
brated shield  made  by  Vulcan.  Achilles  was  killed  by  a 
wound  in  the  heel,  from  which  circumstance  the  tendon  of 
the  leg  above  the  heel  is  usually  called  "  the  tendon  Achilles." 

21.  Who  was  JEneas  ? — He  was  son  of  Anchises  and  Venus, 
who  married  Creusa,  daughter  of  Priam,  and  fought  gallantly 
in  defending  Troy.  At  the  destruction  of  the  city,  he  lost  his 
wife,  and  retired,  bearing  the  aged  Anchises  on  his  shoulders  ; 
he  had  two  sons  named  Ascanius  and  Julus. 

22.  Who  was  Cassandra  ? — She  was  daughter  of  Priam  and 
sister  of  Paris.  The  gods  endowed  her  with  the  gift  of  pro- 
phecy ;  but  she  having  given  offence  to  Apollo,  he  in  revenge 
put  on  her  the  condemnation  that  her  prophecies  would  not 
be  believed.  Her  prophetic  warnings  concerning  the  capture 
of  Troy  were  consequently  disregarded. 

23.  Who  was  Penelope? — She  was  the  wife  of  Ulysses,  and 
mother  of  Telemachus.  During  the  long  wanderings  of 
Ulysses  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  and  when  he  was  believed  to 
be  dead,  Penelope  was  importuned  to  marry  again,  but  she 
put  off  her  suitors  on  the  pretext  that  she  must  first  weave 
a  web  as  a  shroud  for  Laertes,  her  aged  father-in-law.  To 
protract  the  time,  she  undid  by  night  the  portion  of  the  web 
she  had  woven  during  the  day ;  and  at  length   Ulysses  re- 


The   Bastile   was  a   Prison  in    Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


iNClENT  HISTOR  Y— GREECE. 


245 


turned.     From  this  legend,  any  task  apparently  endless,  is 
said  to  resemble  "  Penelope's  web." 

24.  Who  was  Calypso  ? — She  was  the  daughter  of  Atlas,  and 
inhabited  a  remote  woody  island  in  the  ocean,  on  which 
Ulysses  was  shipwrecked.  She  promised  him  immortality  if 
he  would  marry  her  ;  this  he  refused  to  do,  and  finally  she 
was  forced  to  let  him  depart ;  being  inconsolable,  Calypso 
died  of  grief, 

25.  Who  was  Circe  ? — She  was  a  famous  sorceress,  who  ac- 
cording to  Homer,  transformed  two-and-twenty  of  the  com- 
panions of  Ulysses  into  swine  ;  Ulysses,  however,  by  means  of 
a  drug  obtained  from  Mercury,  remained  uninjured,  and  in- 
duced Circe  to  disenchant  his  comrades.  Other  fables  are 
related  of  this  clever  but  malignant  goddess. 

26.  What  was  a  drago7i  ? — In  the  Grecian  and  other  legends, 
it  was  a  large  and  ferocious  serpent  with  feet,  and  that  spouted 
fire  from  its  mouth. 

27.  Who  were  the  Centaurs? — 
They  were  a  savage  race  of  beings, 
formed  of  the  upper  part  of  a  man 
and  the  body  of  a  horse,  who  inhab- 
ited forests  and  mountains,  and  had 
various  encounters  with  Hercules. 

28.  Who  were  the  Cyclopes .?— They 
belonged  to  the  race  of  the  Titans ; 
the  most  prominent  of  them  was 
Polyphemus,  a   monster  with  one  Centaur. 

eye  in  the  centre  of  his  forehead,  who  lived  in  a  cave,  and  de- 
voured human  beings. 

29.  Who  were  the  Titans  ?— They  were  an  early  race  of 
gods,  and  are  represented  as  being  the  sons  and  daughters  of 
Uranus  (heaven)  and  Ge  (earth). 

30.  Who  was  Atlas  ? — He  was  one  of  the  Titans  ;  he  mar- 
ried Pleione,  daughter  of  Oceanus,  and  became  the  father  of 
the  Pleiades.  As  leader  of  the  Titans,  he  attempted  to  storm 
the  heavens,  for  which  audacity  he  was  condemned  to  sup- 
port forever  the  vault  of  heaven  on  his  shoulders.  He  is 
usually  represented  bearing  up  the  globe. 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


246 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— GREECE, 


31.  What  was  the  myth  concerning  Pelion  and  Ossa  ? — Pelion 
and  Ossa  are  two  mountains  in  Thessaly,  which  the  Titans 
are  said  by  the  poets  to  have  piled  one  on  the  other,  to  aid 
them  in  cHmbing  to  the  dwelHngs  of  the  gods,  with  whom 
they  were  at  war. 

32.  Who  was  Saturn? — He  was  one  of  the  Titans,  who  had 
six  children — Vesta,  Ceres,  Juno,  Neptune,  Pluto,  and  Jupi-< 
ter.  Jupiter  conquered  the  ruling  Titans  by  his  thunderbolts, 
and  imprisoned  them  in  Tartarus.  Saturn  was  called  in 
Greek  Cronos,  latterly  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Chronos, 
or  the  god  of  Time,  and  was  repre- 
sented under  the  figure  of  an  old 
man  with  wings,  holding  a  scythe 
in  one  hand  and  a  serpent  with  its 
tail  in  its  mouth  in  the  other. 

33.  Who  was  Pluto? — He  became 
ruler  of  Hades,  or  the  world  of 
shades.  His  wife  was  Proserpine, 
whom  he  had  carried  off  while  gath- 
ering flowers.  The  pair  are  repre- 
sented sitting  on  a  throne,  wearing 
crowns;  Pluto  holding  two  keys 
in  his  hand,  to  signify  that  he  is  warden  of  the  dead. 

34.  Who  were  the  Olympic  gods  ? — They  were  gods  and  god- 
desses who  dwelt  on  the  heights  of  Mount  Olympus,  and 
were  twelve  in  number;  the  following  were  their  Roman 
names,  by  which  they  are  best  known: 

(i.)  Jupiter,  or  Jove,  the  chief  of  all  the  gods,  who  is 
represented  as  seated  on  a  throne  amidst  clouds,  with  thunder- 
bolts in  his  right  hand,  a  sceptre  in  his  left,  and  an  eagle  at 
his  side. 

(2.)  Neptune,  second  in  power  only  to  Jupiter,  who  was 
the  god  of  the  Sea  and  of  Earthquakes  ;  he  is  represented  as 
seated  in  a  shell-chariot  drawn  by  sea-horses,  a  crown  on  his 
head,  and  a  trident  in  his  hand.  His  wife  was  Amphitrite 
queen  of  the  sea. 

(3.)  Apollo,  son  of  Jupiter,  was  the  god  of  Prophecy, 
Music,  and  Song ;  he  is  represented  as  a  handsome  young 


Jupiter. 


The   Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793     to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo  was    Fought   June    i8,    1815 — See   page    368. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— GREECE. 


247 


man  in  flowing  garments,  with  a  lyre  and  bow  in  his  hand. 
Cinder  the  name  Phoebus,  he  is  symbolic  of  the  sun. 

(4.)  Vulcan  was  the  god  of  Fire,  and  a  great  artificer  in 
metals;  one  of  his  performances  was  that  of  forging  the 
thunderbolts  of  Jupiter;  he  is  represented  working  at  an 
anvil  in  the  volcano  of  Mount  Etna. 

(5,)  Mars  was  the  god  of  War,  and  delighted  in  slaughter ; 
he  is  represented  as  an  armed  man  in  a  chariot,  with  the 
goddess  Bellona  at  his  side. 

(6.)  Mercury  was  the  god  of  Eloquence,  the  messenger  of 
the  gods,  and  patron  of  knavery  ;  he  is  represented  with 
wings  on  his  cap  and  ankles,  and  with  a  wand  or  caduceus 
in  his  hand. 

(7.)  Juno  was  the  wife  of  Jupiter;  she  is  represented  as  a 
majestic  female  seated  in  a  car  drawn  by  peacocks,  with  two 
Cupids  flying  over  them. 

(8.)  Minerva  was  the  goddess  of  Wisdom  and  unrelenting 
Force  ;  she  wears  a  helmet  and  breast-plate,  carries  a  spear 
in  her  right  hand,  while  with  the  left  she  holds  a  shield. 

(9,)  Diana,  a  sister  of  Apollo,  was  the  goddess  of  Hunt- 
ing, and  is  armed  with  a  bow  and  arrows.  Under  the  name 
of  Cynthia,  she  is  goddess  of  the  Moon. 

(10.)  Venus  was  the  goddess  of  Love  and  Beauty,  and  had 
a  son,  Cupid,  who  with  his  bow  and  arrow  aided  in  her  de- 
signs on  the  hearts  of  mortals. 

(II.)  Vesta,  the  goddess  of  the  Domestic  Hearth,  a  chaste 
maiden,  who  was  believed  to  dwell  in  the  inner  part  of  every 
house. 

(12.)  Ceres,  the  goddess  of  Corn  and  Agriculture  ;  she 
was  represented  as  holding  a  garland  of  corn-ears  in  the  right 
hand,  while  with  the  left  she  poured  flowers  from  a  horn  of 
plenty. 

35.  Give  the  original  Greek  names  of  the  gods  of  Olympus. — 
Jupiter  was  called  Zeus,  ^^^tViUQ  Poseidon,  Vulcan  Heph(Bstus, 
Mars  Ares,  Mercury  Hermes,  Juno  Hera,  Minerva  Athene, 
Diana  Artemis,  Venus  Aphrodite,  Vesta  Hestia,  and  Ceres 
D^yneter. 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619.— See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


248 


ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  Y— GREECE. 


36.  What  zs  the  origin  of  the  name  Aphrodite — The  nam« 
Aphrodite  is  derived  from  aphros,  foam,  in  allusion  to  ^n  oM 
poetical  myth  which  represented  the  goddess  as  springing 
from  the  foam  of  the  sea.  Aphrodite,  however,  had  other 
names,  according  to  places  and  circumstances,  such  as 
Cythera,  Cyprus,  Paphos,  and  Ida. 

37.  Who  was  Argus? — He  was  a  monster  with  a  hundred 
eyes,  of  which  only  two  were  asleep  at  the  same  time.  Mer- 
cury, by  order  of  Jupiter,  slew  him,  after  lulling  all  his  eyes 
asleep  with  the  sound  of  his  lyre  ;  Juno  took  the  eyes,  and 
put  them  as  a  decoration  on  the  tail  of  the  peacock,  a  bird 
which  was  consecrated  to  her. 

38.  Who  was  Bacchus?— He  was  the  god  of  Wine,  whose 
worship  consisted  in  noisy  orgies,  at  which  votaries,  called 
Bacchantes,  danced  in  a  wild  and  excited  manner. 

39.  Who  was  Silenus  f— He  was  the  god  of  humor  and 
good-fellowship,  an  ally  of  Bacchus. 

40.  Who  Wire  Momus  and  Co7nus  ? — Momus  was  the  god  of 
mockery,  and  Comus  was  the  god  of  nocturnal  revelry ;  vot- 
aries of  Comus  went  about  at  night,  dancing  and  singing,  and 
crowned  with  roses  or  myrtle. 

41.  Who  was  Somnus? — He  was  the  dfowsy  god,  or  god  of 
sleep,  near  whose  habitation  flowed  the  river  Lethe,  which 
creeps  silently  over  the  pebbles,  and  invites  to  slumber.  One 
of  the  attendants  of  Somnus  was  Morpheus,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  excite  agreeable  dreams. 

42.  Who  was  Hy7nen? — He  was  the  god  of  marriage,  re- 
presented to  be  the  son  of  Bacchus  and  Venus.  On  the  oc- 
casion of  nuptials,  propitiatory  hymns  were  sung  in  his 
praise. 

43.  Who  was  Hebe  ? — She  was  the  goddess  of  Youth,  and 
cup-bearer  to  the  gods  of  Olympus,  whom  she  served  with 
the  divine  drink,  nectar. 

44.  What  was  Ambrosia  f — It  was  the  food  of  the  gods,  and 
conferred  immortality  on  those  who  ate  it. 

45.  Who  was  Aurora  ? — She  was  the  goddess  of  the  Dawn, 
who  rises  in  a  chariot  from  the  sea,  and  withdraws  the  cur- 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long. — See    page    302. 


^ 


A  NCI  EN  T  HIS  TOR  V—  GREE  CE.  249 

tains  of  night  with  her  "  rosy  fingers."     Her  Greek  name  was 
Eos. 

46.  Who  was  Phaeton? — He  was  an  ambitious  youth,  who 
was  allowed  to  drive  the  chariot  of  the  sun,  but  not  being 
able  to  control  the  horses,  Jupiter,  to  prevent  setting  the 
world  on  fire,  was  obliged  to  destroy  him   by  a  thunderbolt. 

47.  Who -was  Iris  ? — She  was  a  goddess,  the  messenger  of 
peace  in  nature,  and  symbolizes  the  rainbow. 

48.  Who  was  Pan?-  He  was  the  god  of  Pastures  and 
Flocks,  and  of  a  sportive  character  ;  his  figure  was  that  of  a 
man  with  goat's  ears  and  feet,  and  he  played  on  a  reed  which 
is  named  from  him. 

49.  Who  was  Chloris  ? — She  was  the  goddess  of  flowers  and 
blossoms,  but  is  best  known  under  the  name  Flora,  which 
was  given  to  her  by  the  Romans.  She  is  represented  as  a 
beautiful  female,  with  a  wreath  of  flowers  on  her  head,  and  a 
few  flowers  in  one  of  her  hands.  Chloris  is  the  name  some^ 
times  given  by  modern  poets  to  a  rustic  maiden. 

50.  Who  was  ^olus? — He  was  the  god  of  Wind  ;  from  him 
is  taken  the  name  ^olian  harp,  an  instrument  played  by  the 
wind. 

51.  Who  was  Boreas? — He  was  the  god  and  controller  of 
the  North  Wind,  and  had  temples  erected  to  him  where  he 
was  propitiated  by  sacrifices. 

52.  Who  was  jEsculapius  ? — He  was  the  god  of  the  Healing 
Art,  and  his  symbol  was  a  serpent,  with  which  he  is  gener- 
ally represented. 

53.  Who  was  Procrustes  ? — He  was  a  tyrant  of  Attica  who 
caused  beds  of  several  lengths  to  be  constructed  on  which  to 
inflict  cruelties  on  his  victims.  He  consigned  tall  persons  to 
short  beds,  and  lopped  off  part  of  their  limbs  to  suit  the 
exact  length ;  and  to  suit  short  persons  to  the  long  beds,  he 
drew  the  limbs  out.  Procrustes  was  killed  by  Theseus. 
When  any  one  is  forced  to  adopt  either  of  two  alternatives, 
both  equally  bad,  he  is  said  to  be  placed  on  a  "  Procrustean 
bed." 

54.  Who  was  Prometheus  f—^^He  was  a  person  who,  having 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


2  50  ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  Y— GREECE. 

Stolen  fire  from  heaven,  incurred  the  vengeance  of  Jupiter, 
who  had  him  bound  in  chains  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Cauca^ 
sus,  and  caused  his  hver  to  be  daily  preyed  upon  by  a  vulture  ■ 
Hercules,  however,  killed  the  vulture  and  set  Prometheus  at 
liberty. 

55.  Who  was  Pandora  .?— She  was  a  beautiful  female,  en- 
dowed by  the  gods  with  a  box  filled  with  blessings,  which 
mankind  would  have  continued  to  enjoy  if  curiosity  had  not 
prompted  her  to  open  it,  when  all  the  blessings  flew  out 
except  Hope. 

56.  What  was  Python?— It  W2i?,  a  monstrous  serpent  pro- 
duced by  the  earth  after  the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  and  was 
said  to  have  been  killed  by  the  arrows  of  Apollo,  in  memory 
of  which  the  Pythian  games  were  instituted. 

57.  Who  were  the  5%Zy?— They  were  the  prophetesses, 
who  delivered  oracular  responses,  and  were  guardians  of  cer- 
tain writings  called  the  Sibylline  books. 

58.  Who  were  the  Fates  f—Th^j  ^%xq  three  daughters  of 
Night,  who  determined  human  destiny— Clotho,  the  spinner 
of  the  thread  of  life  ;  Lachesis,  who  determines  the  lot  of 
every  one  ;  and  Atropos,  the  inevitable. 

59.  Who  were  the  Furies? — They  were  three  goddesses  of 
a  fearful  aspect,  having  serpents  twined  in  their  hair,  and 
blood  dripping  from  their  eyes.  Like  the  Fates,  they  had 
a  share  in  determining  the  doom  of  persons  exposed  to 
calamity.  The  names  of  the  Furies  were  Alecto,  Megaera, 
and  Tisiphone. 

60.  Who  was  Hecate? — She  was  a  goddess  of  the  infernal 
world,  who  presided  over  magic  ;  she  was  of  a  frightful  aspect, 
being  represented  with  feet  of  reptiles,  and  with  hissing 
snakes  hanging  from  her  neck  and  shoulders. 

61.  Who  was  Nemesis? — Nemesis  was  the  goddess  who 
visited  all  departures  from  rectitude  with  a  just  retribution. 
Any  one  who  suffers  from  doing  wrong  is  said  to  feel  the  tor- 
ments of  an  avenging  Nemesis. 

62.  Who  were  the  Harpies? — They  were  hideous  monsters 
with  wings,  who  delighted  in  all  that  was  loathsome,  and 
took  a  wicked  delight  in  contaminating  all  they  touched. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779 See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the   Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See  page    133. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— GREECE.  25  I 

63.  Who  was  Charon .?— He  was  a  wretched  old  man,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  ferry  the  spirits  of  the  deceased  across  the 
river  Styx,  for  which  he  charged  a  small  coin  ;  those  who 
could  not  pay  the  fee  were  doomed  to  wander  restlessly  along 
the  shores  of  Acheron. 

64.  What  was  Cerberus  /—He  was  a  ferocious  dog  with  three 
heads,  covered  with  snakes  for  hair,  and  his  duty  was  to 
watch  the  gate  of  the  infernal  regions,  lest  any  one  should 
get  out. 

65.  Who  was  Brzaretts  ?—Uq  was  a  giant  with  a  hundred 
hands  and  fifty  heads,  who,  with  others  of  his  race,  assisted 
the  gods  in  their  wars  against  the  Titans. 

66.  Who  was  Sisyphus  /—He  was  a  person  who,  for  his 
crimes,  was  banished  by  the  gods  to  Tartarus,  where  his 
punishment  consisted  in  rolling  a  stone  to  the  top  of  a  hill, 
but  which  ever  rolled  down  again,  and  accordingly  his  toil 
was  endless. 

67.  Who  were  the  Muses? — They  were  the  goddesses  of 
Music,  Poetry,  Song,  and  Dancing  ;  they  were  nine  in  number, 
and  are  represented  as  companions  of  Apollo;  their  names 
were  Clio,  Euterpe,  Thalia,  Melpomene,  Terpsichore,  Erato, 
Polyhymnia,  Urania,  and  Calliope.  Poets  still  sometimes 
affect  to  invoke  the  aid  of  the  Muses. 

68.  What  was  Parnassus? — It  was  a  celebrated  mountain 
near  the  centre  of  Greece,  inhabited  by  the  Muses,  to  whom 
a  well  at  its  base,  called  the  Castalian  Fountain,  was  dedi- 
cated. 

69.  Who  was  Orpheus?— Yi^  was  a  son  of  Apollo  and  the 
muse  Calliope,  and  was  celebrated  for  his  beauty  and  his 
musical  powers  ;  on  the  death  of  his  wife  Eurydice,  he  went 
to  the  nether  world,  and,  by  the  charms  of  his  lyre,  won  her 
back  from  the  stern  Pluto;  but  forgetting  the  condition — 
that  he  was  not  to  look  back  upon  his  restored  wife  till  they 
reached  the  upper  world — she  was  again  snatched  away  from 
him.  Orpheus  is  represented  bearing  a  harp  with  seven 
strings. 

70.  Who  were  the  Graces? — They  were  the  goddesses  ol 
Grace,  Favor,  and  Gentleness,  and  were  of  matchless  beauty; 


W 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist. — See  page  65. 


252 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— GREECE. 


O 


they  were  three  in  number — Aglaia,  Thalia,  Euphrosyne,  and 
are  generally  represented  in  a  group. 

71.  Who  were  the  Nymphs? — They  were  the  goddesses  ol 
Mountains,  Woods,  Streams,  Grottoes,  and  Fountains,  and 
were  of  several  classes  ;  those  who  frequented  woods  and 
forests  were  called  Dryads  and  Hamadryads. 

72.  Who  were  the  Sirens? — They  were  beautiful  sea-god- 
desses, v/ith  the  tails  of  fishes,  and  by  their  songs  lured  per- 
sons to  destruction ;  they  seem  to  have  given  rise  to  the 
fabulous  mermaids  of  later  times. 

73.  Who  were  the  Tritons? — The)^  were  heralds  of  Neptune; 
in  form  they  were  half-man  and  half-fish,  and  are  represented 
as  blowing  a  large  shell  as  a  trumpet. 

74.  Who  was  Eris? — She  was  a  goddess  (called  Discordia 
by  the  Romans)  who  promoted  quarrels,  discord,  and  con- 
fusion. Taking  offense  at  not  being  invited  to  the  marriage 
of  Peleus  and  the  sea-nymph  Thetis,  she  entered  abruptly 
and  threw  down  the  golden  apple,  which  caused  a  conten- 
tion between  Juno,  Minerva,  and  Mercury;  for  this  she  was 
thrust  from  heaven  by  Jupiter,  but  continued  to  work  mis- 
chief  and  to  be  propitiated  in  temples.  From  this  fable 
arise  expressions  about  "throwing  down  the  apple  of  discord." 

75.  Who  7vas  Fame? — She  was  the  goddess  of  rumor,  and 
was  represented  in  a  flying  attitude  sounding  a  trumpet ; 
the  name  in  Greek  was  Pheme,  and  in  Latin  Fatna. 

76.  Who  was  Fortune? — She  was  the  goddess  of  chance; 
her  name  in  Greek  was  Tyche,  and  in  Latin  Fortima.  She 
was. represented  leaning  on  a  wheel,  or  with  a  rudder,  sym- 
bolic of  her  guiding  power. 

JJ.  Who  was  Psyche? — In  Greek,  the  term  Psyche  signified 
the  soul.  According  to  mythic  allegory.  Psyche  was  a  beau- 
tiful princess  who  was  married  to  Cupid.  She  is  represented 
with  the  wings  of  a  butterfly  springing  from  her  shoulders, 
and  holding  a  butterfly  in  her  hand. 

78,  Who  was  Proteus? — He  was  a  deified  mortal,  keeper  of 
the  sea-calves  of  Neptune  on  the  island  of  Pharos,  and,  to 
flude  those  who  wished  to  consult  him,  possessed  the  power 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47. 


ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  Y— GREECE  253 

of  changing  himself  into  all  sorts  of  shapes — beasts,  birds, 
fishes,  trees,  fire,  water,  or  other  objects.  Any  one  who  as- 
sumes different  appearances,  is  said  to  do  so  ''  Protean- 
like." 

79.  Who  were  the  Gorgofis  ? — They  were  three  sisters  named 
Stheno,  Euryale,  and  Medusa,  all  immortal  except  Medusa; 
their  hair  was  twined  with  serpents,  their  hands  were  of  brass, 
their  bodies  were  covered  with  impenetrable  scales,  their  teeth 
resembled  the  tusks  of  the  wild  boar,  and  they  possessed  the 
power  of  turning  to  stone  all  on  whom  they  fixed  their  eyes. 
Perseus  had  the  address  to  cut  off  the  head  of  Medusa  before 
she  could  see  him. 

80.  What  was  Pegasus  ? — He  was  a  winged  horse  which 
sprung  from  the  blood  of  Medusa,  and  immediately  flew  up 
to  heaven ;  according  to  a  modern  poetic  fancy,  Pegasus 
became  the  horse  of  the  Muses  on  Mount  Helicon — hence,  a 
person  who  writes  poetry  is  said  to  "  mount  his  Pegasus." 

81.  Who  was  Pygmalion .?— He  was  a  statuary,  who,  having 
carved  a  female  statue  in  ivory,  entreated  Venus  to  endow  it 
with  life,  which  wish  was  granted,  and  it  became  his  wife. 
This  fable  has  suggested  various  poems  and  dramas. 

82.  Who  was  Didof—She  was  a  daughter  of  a  king  of 
Tyre ;  her  husband  being  murdered,  she  fled  with  some 
treasures  and  founded  Carthage.  There  is  a  legend  that  Dido 
purchased  as  much  land  as  could  be  encompassed  by  a  bull's 
hide  ;  whereupon  she  cut  the  hide  into  thongs,  and  thus  en- 
closed a  large  piece  of  territory. 

83.  Who  was  Narcissus  f— He  was  a  youth  of  great  beauty, 
who,  seeing  his  figure  reflected  in  a  river,  became  enamored 
of  himself,  and  forthwith  languished  and  died. 

84.  Who  was  Philomela  f— She  was  sister-in-law  of  Tereus, 
king  of  Thrace,  who  treated  her  with  cruel  violence,  and  she 
was  afterwards  changed  into  a  nightingale.  This  bird  still 
bears  her  name,  Philomel,  and  is  supposed  by  the  poets  to 
continue  to  wail  her  fate  in  expressive  notes. 

85.  What  were  the  Greek  oracles  ?— They  were  responses 
given  to  questions  respecting  future  events  at  certain  shrines, 

II   A 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728.— See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


254 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y— GREECE. 


and  were  supposed  to  proceed  from  some  deity.  The  most 
celebrated  oracles  were  those  at  Delphi,  where  the  priestess, 
called  the  Pythia,  seated  on  a  tripod  over  a  chasm  of  the 
earth,  from  which  an  intoxicating  vapor  issued,  was  believed 
to  become  inspired  by  Apollo  ;  and  her  utterances,  when  in 
this  state,  were  interpreted  by  the  attendant  priests. 

86.  What  were  tutelary  gods  ? — Tutelary  gods  and  goddesses 
were  those  deities  who  were  supposed  to  protect  individuals 
and  places  ;  Athens  for  example,  was  under  the  protection  of 
Athene  or  Minerva,  as  a  tutelary  goddess. 

Z"],  What  were  the  Olympic  and  Pythian  games  f — The  Olym- 
pic games  were  great  festivals, 
partly  religious  and  partly  for 
amusement,  held  in  the  plain  of 
Olympia  every  four  years,  which 
length  of  time  was  called  an  olym- 
piad. The  Pythian  games  were  sec- 
ond in  importance  only  to  the  Olym- 
pic games,  and  were  celebrated  in 
the  third  year  of  every  olympiad. 
There  were  likewise  Nemean  and 
Isthmian  games,  at  all  of  which 
there  were  great  concourses  of 
people. 

88.  Who  was  Midas  ? — He  was  a 
king  of  Phrygia,  to  whom  Bacchus  Laocoon. 
granted  his  wish,  that  everything  he  touched  might  turn  to 
gold  ;  finding  that  u  s  food  became  gold,  he  was  relieved  of 
the  unpleasant  boon  by  Bacchus  causing  him  to  bathe  in  the 
river  Pactolus. 

89.  What  is  meant  by  "the  ears  of  Midas  ?" — Having  been 
appointed  umpire  to  determine  whether  the  reed  of  Pan  or 
the  flute  of  Apollo  was  the  finer  instrument,  Midas  gave  the 
preference  to  the  reed,  whereupon  Apollo,  as  a  punishment, 
gave  him  2i  pair  of  ass  s  ears. 

90.  Who  was  Laocoon  f— He  was  a  priest  of  Apollo  or  Nep- 
tune, who  was  destroyed  with  his  two  sons  by  two  enormous 
serpents  which  coiled  about  them.     This  legendary  story  has 


Croesus,   a   King  in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y— GREECE.  255 

formed  the  subject  of  perhaps  the  grandest  of  the  ancient 
Greek  sculptures. 

91.  Who  was  Europa? — She  was  a  beautiful  princess,  who 
was  carried  away  by  Jupiter  in  the  form  of  a  bull,  on  the  back 
of  which  she  had  seated  herself,  from  its  apparent  gentleness. 
The  continent  of  Europe  is  named  from  her. 

92.  Who  was  Minos  f — He  was  a  king  of  Crete,  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Europa,  and  celebrated  for  his  wisdom  and  mili- 
tary skill ;  at  his  death  he  was,  with  Rhadamanthus,  made  a 
judge  of  the  infernal  regions. 

93.  Who  was  Ariadne  f — She  was  daughter  of  Minos,  king 
of  Crete — grandson  of  the  first  Minos — and  was  married  to 
Theseus.  Ariadne  possessed  great  beauty,  and  has  been  a 
favorite  object  of  sculpture. 

94.  Who  was  Theseus  f — He  was  a  king  of  Athens,  and  a  com- 
panion of  Hercules  and  Jason  in  the  expedition  to  bring 
home  the  golden  fleece.  Having  gone  to  Crete  to  kill  the 
Minotaur,  a  monster  half-man,  half-bull,  confined  in  a  cele- 
brated labyrinth,  he  was  furnished  by  Ariadne  with  a  clew  of 
thread,  by  which  he  found  his  way  out,  and  married  her  in 
gratitude  for  his  deliverance. 

95.  Who  was  Cadmus? — He  was  brother  to  Europa,  and 
having  gone  to  seek  for  her  when  carried  off  by  Jupiter, 
arrived  at  a  spot  where  he  killed  a  dragon,  and,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Minerva,  sowed  its  teeth  in  the  earth,  from  which 
armed  men  immediately  sprang  up.  He  built  the  city  of 
Thebes,  and  taught  the  inhabitants  a  knowledge  of  letters. 

96.  What  was  the  "  Gordian-knot?" — It  was  an  intricate  knot 
by  which,  on  one  occasion,  Gordius,  king  of  Phrygia,  tied 
the  harness  of  his  oxen.  An  oracle  having  declared  that  he 
who  was  able  to  untie  the  knot  would  conquer  Asia,  Ale  xander 
the  Great,  after  failing  to  untie  it,  cut  it  asunder  with  his 
sword.  Hence,  "to  cut  the  Gordian-knot,"  is  equivalent  to 
overcoming  a  difficulty  by  a  violent  measure. 

97.  What  is  the  story  of  Hero  and  Leander  ? — Hero  was  a 
priestess  of  Venus  celebrated  for  her  love  of  Leander,  who 
visited  her  by  swimming  at  night  across  the  Hellespont;  his 
course  on  these  occasions  being  directed  by  a  blazing  torch 


^ 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second. — See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821  — See  page  411 


256 


ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  Y— GREECE. 


which  Hero  held  from  the  top  of  a  tower.  One  tempestuous 
night  Leander  was  drowned,  and  at  sight  of  his  body  cast 
ashore,  Hero  threw  herself  from  the  tower. 

98.  Who  was  Tantalus? — He  was  a  person  who  forfeited 
the  favor  of  the  gods;  and  as  a  punishment  was  condemned 
to  perpetual  thirst,  by  standing  in  water  which  his  lips  could 
not  reach.  From  this  legend  is  derived  the  English  word 
tantalize. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— GREECE,   ITS  CREDIBLE 
HISTORY 

1.  When  does  the  credible  history  of  Greece  begin  ? — It  begins 
776  B.  C,  such  being  the  date  of  the  first  olympiad — all  pre- 
vious to  that  period  being  regarded  as  doubtful  or  fabulous. 

2.  How  was  Greece  governed? — The  country  consists  of  a 
number  of  separate  states,  which  in  the  early  legendary  period 
are  represented  as  having  been  governed  by  kings  ;  but 
afterwards,  when  authentic  history  begins,  each  state  was 
ruled  either  by  an  aristocracy  or  democracy,  and  among  these 
were  frequent  dissensions  and  wars. 

3.  Mention  the  chief  states  of  Greece  ? — Thessaly,  Argolis, 
Arcadia,  Corinth,  Elis,  Achaia,  Phocis,  Boeotia,  Laconia,  and 
Attica;  but  there  were  several  others,  and  also  some  colonies 
in  Asia  Minor,  Sicily,  and  Italy.  The  two  states  most  pro- 
minent in  history  were  Attica  and  Laconia — better  known 
by  the  names  of  their  chief  cities,  Athens  and  Sparta. 

4.  What  was  remarkable  about  Arcadia  ? — It  was  a  moun- 
tainous country  in  the  Peloponnesus,  inhabited  by  a  people 
of  simple  rural  habits,  and  full  of  patriotic  ardor,  who  con- 
sidered themselves  to  be  descendants  of  the  most  ancient 
settlers.  From  their  manners  is  derived  the  phrase  "  Arca- 
dian simplicity." 

5.  What  was  the  Amphictyonic  Council? — It  was  a  central 
council,  or  congress  of  representatives  of  the  early  Grecian 
tribes,  who  met  to  determine  questions  of  international  law; 
it  continued  to  exist  for  a  long  period,  but  latterly  ceased  to 


•'  Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


to 

V 

to 

CIS 

a. 

V 
V 

w 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— GREECE.  257 


command  respect.     It  was  thought  to  have  taken  its  name 
from  Amphictyon,  one  of  the  early  kings  of  Athens. 

6.  Who  was  Codrusf—hQCOxd.m^  to  the  legend  he  was 
the  last  of  the  kings  of  Athens,  and  died  about  1068  B.  c. 

7.  Who  was  Lycurgusf — He  was  a  sage  who  gave   law  to     "N.cS 
Sparta  and  formed   its  government ;  the   discipline  he  en- 
joined on   the  Spartan  youth  was  exceedingly  severe,  and 
he  required  all  classes  to  study  only  the  public  good  ;  he, 
however,   sanctioned  the  condition  of  helots. 

8.  Who  were  the  Helots? — They  were  a  lower  order  of 
people  in  Laconia,  held  in  the  condition  of  serfs  or  slaves, 
who  might  be  assassinated  at  the  pleasure  of  their  owners. 

9.  Who  were  the  Doric  Greeks? — They  were  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Peloponnesians  who  had  come  from  the  small 
mountain  district  of  Doris,  near  Thessaly,  and  had  occupied 
principally  Laconia  and  Argolis.  The  Doric  Greeks  were 
noted  for  the  plainness  of  their  dialect,  and  the  plain  solidity 
of  their  architecture. 

10.  Who  were  the  Ionic  Greeks? — They  comprehended  the 
inhabitants  of  Attica,  Euboea,  and  some  other  places ;  the 
whole  were  much  more  polished  than  the  Doric  Greeks. 

11.  What  was  meant  by  "Attic  wit  f — It  meant  any  say- 
ing that  was  smart  or  witty ;  the  inhabitants  of  Attica  be- 
ing reputed  for  their  clever  observations.  "Attic  salt"  is  a 
phrase  still  employed  to  signify  a  keen  or  witty  remark. 

12.  What  city  was  Athens? — Athens,  or,  more  properly, 
Athenae,  was  the  capital  of  Attica,  and  chief  city  in  Greece ; 
it  was  celebrated  for  its  learning  and  its  many  fine  buildings. 

13.  What  was  the  Ilissus? — It  was  a  river  in  Attica,  often 
referred  to,  but  is  a  mere  mountain  torrent,  almost  dry  in 
summer. 

14.  What  was  the  PircBus? — It  was  the  harbor  or  seaport 
of  Athens,  from  which  it  was  not  far  distant. 

15.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  Athenian  government  ? — It 
was  at  first  a  kind  of  aristocracy,  with  chief  rulers  called 
torchons  ;  but  falling  into  disorder,  a  reform  was  attempted  by 
Draco. 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000     Square    Miles.— See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


258 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y— GREECE. 


16.  Who  was  Draco? — He  was  one  of  the  archons,  who 
compiled  a  code  of  laws  of  so  exceedingly  severe  a  nature, 
that  the  lightest,  as  well  as  the  greatest  offences,  were  pun- 
ishable with  death.  Hence,  severe  laws  are  still  called  "  Dra- 
conian." 

17.  Who  was  Solon  ? — He  was  a  learned  and  sagacious  per- 
son, who  was  invited  to  remedy  the  abuses  of  government 
in  Athens,  which  the  laws  of  Draco  had  failed  to  cure  ;  he 
introduced  various  modifications,  but  was  at  length  set  aside 
by  Peisistratus,  who  usurped  the  supreme  power.  The  gov- 
ernment of  Peisistratus,  however,  was  mild  and  beneficent, 
and  he  is  noted  as  the  most  liberal,  humane,  and  accom- 
plished of  all  the  Greek  "tyrants." 

18.  Who  were  the  "tyrants"  in  ancient  Greece  f — They  were 
rulers  who  had  usurped  or  acquired  in  a  political  crisis  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  state,  but  were  not  necessarily  cruel 
or  oppressive,  as  the  English  term  would  lead  one  to  suppose. 
Some  of  them  were  quite  the  reverse.     Byron  justly  says  : 

"The  'tyrant'  of  the  Chersonese 
Was  freedom's  best  and  truest  friend." 

19.  What  was  the  Areopagus  ? — It  was  the  high  council  or 
Tribunal  at  Athens,  partly  composed  of  persons  who  had 
been  chief-magistrates ;  it  met  in  the  open  air,  and  during 
the  night,  in  order  that  the  members  might  not  be  distracted 
by  surrounding  objects. 

20.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  Areopagus  ? — It  signi- 
fies the  "  Hill  of  Ares,"  such  being  the  place  where  the  tribu- 
nal had  its  meetings.  As  Ares  is  the  Greek  term  for  Mars, 
the  hill  became  known  to  the  Romans  as  "Mars'  Hill,"  and 
under  that  designation  it  is  referred  to  as  the  spot  where 
Paul  preached  at  Athens  (Acts,  xvii.  22). 

21.  Who  was  Cleisthenes  f — He  was  one  of  the  successors  of 
Peisistratus  who  made  fresh  attempts  to  improve  the  govern- 
ment, one  of  his  institutions  being  that  of  ostracism. 

22.  What  was  ostracism  f—lt  was  a  vote  of  banishment  by 
the  citizens  of  Athens  against  any  one  they  disliked ;  600Q 
votes  being  deemed  sufficient.  The  votes  were  inscribed  on  3 
shell  (in  Greek,  ostracon),  and  hence  the  term. 


I 

a 
u 
O 

G 
•♦-» 

a 

0) 

E 

w 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,    in    Mythology,  was    the    Food    of  the   Q^ds See  page    248. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— GREECE. 


259 


23.  What  was  the  period  in  which  the  Grecian  states  enjoyed 
the  greatest  prosperity? — From  about  500  to  146  B.  C,  during 
which  time,  amidst  constant  wars,  dissensions,  and  even  sub- 
jugation, the  country  attained  to  a  high  perfection  in  archi- 
tecture, sculpture,  and  various  other  arts,  also  to  much  re- 
nown for  its  literature  and  philosophy. 

24.  Who  was  Miltiades  ? — He  was  commander  of  the  Athe- 
nian army,  with  which  he  was  victorious  over  the  Persians 
under  Darius,  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  fought  490  b.  c.  Mil- 
tiades  aftenvards  forfeited  the  regard  of  his  countrymen  by 
some  traitorous  proceedings. 

25.  Who  were  the  Lacedcemonians  ? — That  was  the  older  name 
for  the  Spartans. 

26.  Who  was  Leonidas ? — He  was  commander  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesians  in  defending  the  Pass  of  Thermopylae  against 
Xerxes  and  a  host  of  Persians,  in  which  attempt  he  was 
killed,  and  Athens  was  shortly  afterwards  captured,  and  many 
of  its  buildings  destroyed. 

27.  Who  was  Thejnistocles  f—Re  was  an  Athenian  com- 
mander, who  gained  the  naval  victory  of  Salamis  over  the 
Persians,  and  so  relieved  Greece  from  its  invaders ;  the  Per- 
sians were  finally  defeated  at  Plataea  by  Pausanias  (478  B.  c.) 

28.  Who  was  Aristides? — He  was  an  archon  of  Athens, 
celebrated  for  his  upright  character,  but  was  factiously  ostra- 
cised by  the  citizens  ;  he  was  afterwards  recalled,  and  helped 
to  rid  the  country  of  the  Persians. 

29.  Who  was  Pausanias? — He  was  a  Spartan  general  who, 
having  favored  the  Persians,  was  detected  in  his  treachery, 
and  to  save  himself  from  popular  vengeance,  took  refuge  in 
a  temple  of  Minerva  ;  but  his  indignant  mother  brought  the 
first  stone  to  build  up  the  entrance  to  the  temple,  and  the  pop- 
ulace completed  the  work,  by  which  he  was  walled  up  and 
starved  to  death. 

30.  Who  was  Pericles? — He  was  a  successor  of  Themistoc- 
les,  and  gained  a  complete  ascendency  over  the  Athenians 
as  a  civic  ruler  and  military  commander.  He  greatly  beauti- 
fied Athens  with  the  Parthenon  and  other  public  buildings 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The 


Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    i2.-See  page   242 


260 


ANCIENT  HJSTOR  Y— GREECE. 


and  the  city  in  his  time,  recovered  from  its  injuries,  was  in 
all  its  glory ;  he  died  429  b.  c. 

31.  Who  was  Aspasia .?— She  was  the  beautiful  and  accom- 
plished wife  of  Pericles  ;  her  marriage,  however,  was  not 
considered  to  be  legal,  for  she  was  a  native  of  Miletus  in 
Ionia,  and  by  a  cruel  system,  all  foreign  women  in  Athen? 
were  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  the  laws.  A  misunderstand- 
ing of  this  fact  has  led  to  erroneous  opinions  respecting 
Aspasia. 

32.  What  was  the  Parthenon  ?—\t  was  the  temple  of  Athene 
or  Minerva  at  Athens,  built  of  marble  by  order  of  Pericles, 
and  situated  on  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  Acropolis — a  word 
signifying    the  highest  point  in  the  city. 

33.  Who  was  Alcibiades? — He  was  a  handsome  youth, 
nephew  of  Pericles,  and  an  able  military  commander  ;  but  he 
possessed  no  fixed  principles,  served  opposite  parties,  and 


Parthenon. 

was  killed  by  the  Persians  at  the  instigation  of  the  Spartans, 
404  B.  c. 

34.  Who  were  the  Thebans? — They  were  inhabitants  of 
Boeotia,  so  called  from  Thebes,  the  capital  of  their  state. 
The  Boeotians  were  reputed  to  be  dull  and  stupid  ;  but  this 
may  have  been  said  invidiously,  for  they  produced  some  of 
the  most  illustrious  of  the  Greek  warriors  and  writers. 

35.  What  was  the  Peloponnesian  war? — It  was  a  civil  war 
arising  from  the  rivalry  between  Sparta  and  Athens  for  the 
leadership  of  the  Grecian  states;  this  war,  which  lasted 
twenty  years,  greatly  devastated  Greece,  and  led  to  its  sub- 
jugation by  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  338  B.  C. 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  Y— GREECE.  26 1 

36.  What  was  the  state  of  Greece  when  subjugated? — A  new 
lustre  was  conferred  on  the  Hellenic  race  by  the  vigorous 
policy  of  Philip,  and  the  splendid  conquests  of  his  son, 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  utterly  overthrew  the  power  of 
the  Persians,  and  carried  the  fame  of  Greece  almost  to  the 
banks  of  the  Ganges. 

37.  What  was  the  fate  of  Greece  on  the  death  of  Alexander  ? — 
It  remained  a  dependency  of  Macedon,  and  endeavored,  by  a 
confederacy,  called  the  Achaean  League,  to  recover  indepen- 
dence, but  was  unsuccessful.  After  remaining  altogether  190 
years  subject  to  Macedon,  Greece,  in  the  year  148  b.  c,  passed 
into  the  power  of  the  Romans,  who  succeeded  as  the  next 
great  conquerors  of  the  world. 

38.  Where  was  the  vale  of  Temp^  ? — It  was  part  of  the  valley 
of  the  river  Peneus  in  Thessaly,  having  Mount  Olympus  on 
the  north,  and  Mount  Ossa  on  the  south ;  by  the  Greek  poets 
Tempe  was  celebrated  for  its  great  beauty,  and  it  is  still  ad- 
mired for  its  picturesque  character. 

39.  From  what  does  "Sa7man  wine"  take  its  name? — From 
the  island  of  Samos,  one  of  the  principal  islands  on  the  coast 
of  Greece,  which  is  celebrated  for  its  wine,  oil,  silk,  and  other 
productions. 

40.  For  what  was  Hymettus  celebrated? — Hymettus  was  a 
mountain  in  Attica,  distinguished  for  the  quantity  and  ex- 
cellence of  its  honey,  which  the  bees  here  collected. 

41.  What  was  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes? — It  was  a  colossal 
brazen  statue  of  Helios,  erected  at  the  entrance  to  one  of  the 
ports  of  the  island  of  Rhodes ;  it  was  70  cubits,  or  about  105 
feet  high,  and  it  is  said  that  a  man  could  scarcely  compass 
one  of  the  thumbs  of  the  figure  with  his  arms.  This  famed 
colossus,  which  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  224  B.  C,  is 
usually  represented  as  having  stood  astride  over  the  en- 
trance to  the  port ;  but  this  is  thought  to  have  been  a  fable. 

42.  In  what  way  has  modern  society  been  benefited  by  ancient 
Greece?— It  has  derived  great  benefit  from  its  literature  and 
philosophy,  also  from  its  exquisite  taste  in  the  arts  of  sculp- 
ture and  architecture.  Its  mythology  has  likewise  given 
rise  to  innumerable  poetic    fancies,  to  which,  after  an  interval 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  BX^^-Se^jpage^ 


'S 


262 


ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  Y—ROME. 


of  two  thousand  years,  there  is  still   a  constant  reffcrfctit.s5. 

43.  Who  was  Phidias? — He  was  an  eminent  Grecian  sculp- 
tor in  the  time  of  Pericles,  and  executed  some  of  the  grand- 
est of  the  statues  at  Athens. 

44.  Who  was  Hippocrates  ? — He  was  a  celebrated  physician 
of  Greece,  the  first  founder  of  a  regular  system  of  medicine  , 
he  flourished  about  400  b.  c. 

45.  Mention  some  of  the  celebrated  philosophers  of  Greece. — 
Pythagoras,  Empedocles,  Zeno,  Socrates,  Aristotle,  Plato, 
Diogenes,  Epicurus,  and  Democritus. 

46.  What  is  one  of  the  traditions  respecting  Empedocles  ? — He 
is  said  to  have  thrown  himself  into  thecraterof  Mount  Etna, 
in  order  to  create  a  belief  by  his  sudden  disappearance  that  he 
had  been  taken  up  by  the  gods,  but  that  the  volcano  having 
ejected  his  sandals,  the  manner  of  his  death  was  discovered  ; 
this  legend  rests  on  no  credible  authority. 

47.  Mention  some  of  the  celebrated  writers  of  Greece. — Homer, 
Hesiod,  Pindar  and  Sappho,  u:Eschylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides, 
Herodotus,  Aristophanes,  Thucydides,  Theocritus,  Strabo, 
Xenophon,  and  Plutarch  ;  but  there  were- many  others. 

48.  Who  was  Demosthe7ies  ? — He  was  a  celebrated  orator  of 
Greece ;  his  most  famous  speeches  were  called  Philippics, 
from  being  fiery  denunciations  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedon. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— ROME. 

I.. Where  is  Rome  situated? — It  is  situated  in  the  central 
part  of  Italy,  on  both  sides  of  the  Tiber,  about  thirteen  miles 
from  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean. 

2.  What  was  the  early  condition  of  Italy  ? — It  was  occupied 
by  a  number  of  separate  peoples  of  the  same  Asiatic  origin 
as  the  Greeks,  and  who  were  known  as  Latins,  Oscans,  Sa- 
bines,  Tusci,  Volscians,  and  others,  each  forming  a  small 
nation. 

3.  What  was  the  part  occupied  by  the  Latins? — It  was 
Latium,  from  which  they  took   their  name,  and  it  was  in 


The   Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815 — See   page    368. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— ROME.  263 

Latium  that  the  city  of  Rome  sprung  into  existence,  and 
latterly  gave  a  designation  to  such  of  the  inhabitants  of  Italy 
as  received  the  Roman  franchise.  The  Roman  language 
continued  to  be  called  Latin,  and  still  is  so  called. 

4.  Who  was  Romulus? — He  was  the  person  from  whom 
Rome  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name,  but  we  know  little 
else  concerning  him  than  a  mythic  fable. 

5.  What  is  the  myth  concerning  Romulus? — It  is  related 
that  Romulus  and  Remus,  twin-brothers,  of  royal  parentage, 
were  exposed  as  infants  to  perish,  and  were  saved  by  being 
suckled  by  a  she-wolf  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  where  Romulus 
subsequently  founded  the  city  of  Rome. 

6.  What  is  the  date  of  this  alleged  event  ? — About  753  B.  C, 
and  though  the  story  of  Romulus  and  the  wolf  is  now  known 
to  be  a  fable,  it  is  certain  that  there  was  such  a  person  as 
Romulus,  and  that  he  was  the  first  of  a  series  of  kings  of 
Rome. 

7.  What  is  the  legend  concerning  the  Sabines? — It  is  said 
that  the  Sabines,  with  their  families  were  invited  by  Rom- 
ulus to  a  festival,  and  that  when  they  had  come  the 
Romans  seized  on  the  wives  and  daughters  of  their  guests — 
an  outrage  which  produced  a  war;  but  at  the  intercession  of 
the  Sabine  women,  whom  the  Romans  married,  peace  was  re- 
stored, and  a  union  took  place  between  the  two  nations. 

8.  When  did  the  kingly  government  of  Rome  terminate? — 
It  ended  in  509  b.  c,  alter  a  series  of  seven  kings,  the  last  of 
whom,  Tarquin,  was  expelled,  and  a  commonwealth  or  repub- 
lic was  established. 

9.  Who  was  Lucius  Jujiius  Brutus? — He  was  a  rich  Roman 
who,  to  escape  being  murdered  like  his  brother  by  Tarquin, 
king  of  Rome,  feigned  idiocy.  In  consequence  of  Tarquin's 
atrocities,  Brutus  assumed  his  proper  character,  and  rousing 
the  people,  expelled  Tarquin.  Brutus  was  now  chosen  one 
of  the  consuls,  in  which  capacity,  sitting  as  a  judge,  he  con- 
demned his  own  son  to  death  for  having  conspired  to  restore 
the  monarchy — an  often-quoted  instance  of  the  stern  charac- 
ter of  the  ancient  Romans. 

10.  What  was  the  social  condition  of  Rome  at  this  ti7ne  ? — 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    i6ig. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspearc    was    Born    1564;      Died    1616.  —  See    page     143. 


264  ANCIENT  HISTORY— ROME. 

The  inhabitants  consisted,  first  of  a  privileged  class,  called 
the  Patricians ;  second  the  Clients,  or  strangers ;  third,  the 
Plcbs,  or  plebeians;  and  fourth,  the  Servi,  or  slaves,  who  were 
bought  and  sold  like  cattle. 

11.  Why  were  the  strangers  called  clients  ? — Because,  possess- 
ing no  civic  privileges,  they  had  to  put  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  some  powerful  citizen,  who  was  styled  their 
Patron.  The  word  client,  from  the  Latin,  signifies  a  listener 
— hence  a  dependent. 

12.  Who  were  the  Roman  consuls? — They  were  two  chief- 
magistrates  appointed  annually,  in  whom  was  vested  the  ex- 
ecutive government,  with  the  exception  of  that  which  be- 
longed to  the  pontiffs. 

13.  Who  were  the  Pontiffs  ? — They  were  a  college  of  priests, 
and  had  charge  of  the  religious  ceremonials;  their  president 
was  styled  Pontifex  Maximus.  The  word  pontifex  is  said  to 
come  from  the  L3.tin pons,  a  bridge,  and/^<f/<?,  to  make;  the 
priests  having  been  the  first  builders  of  bridges  across  the 
Tiber.    The  officiating  priests  were  caWedffafnens. 

14.  What  was  the  religion  of  the  Romans  ? — It  was  a  poly- 
theism resembling  that  of  the  Greeks — a  large  number  of 
heathen  gods  and  goddesses  being  worshipped  in  temples, 
and  oracles  consulted.  While  adopting  much  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  the  Romans  introduced  a  number  of  new  fables, 
rejected  various  coarse  observances,  and  changed  the  names  of 
near  the  whole  of  the  gods  and  goddesses.  Such  alterations 
have  caused  considerable  perplexity  in  literature  ;  in  the 
present  day,  the  Roman  names  are  for  the  most  part  em- 
ployed. 

1 5.  What  were  the  "  Lares,  Manes,  and  Penates  ?" — They 
were  tutelary  or  guardian  spirits,  who,  as  a  species  of  deities, 
were  supposed  to  watch  over  cities,  private  dwellings,  and 
individuals.  The  Romans  had  their  public  and  domestic 
lares,  and  in  the  higher  class  of  dwellings,  images  were  set 
up  in  shrines  to  receive  particular  honors.  The  spirits  of 
deceased  persons  were  called  their  manes. 

16.  Who  was  yanusf—Ue  was  a  god  of  the  Romans,  un- 
known to  the  Greeks.    The  first  hour  of  the  day,  and  the  first 


The    Famous   Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


J 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— ROME.  265 

day  of  the  )^ear  were  sacred  to  him  ;  he  was  represented  by  a 
figure  with  two  faces— one  looking  to  the  past,  the  other  to 
the  future  ;  he  was  also  the  god  of  doorways  and  passages. 
Janus  had  a  temple,  which  was  -opened  at  the  beginning  of 
every  war,  and  was  not  shut  while  the  war  lasted.  Our  word 
January  is  taken  from  the  name  of  this  god  of  the  opening 
year,  and  so  likewise  is  our  vfovd  Janitor,  or  door-keeper. 

17.  Who  was  Concordia  f—ShQ  was  a  goddess  of  the  Ro- 
mans, who  promoted  peace  and  friendly  intercourse,  and  is 
generally  represented  as  a  graceful  female  holding  a  corn- 
ucopia or  horn  of  plenty.  The  effigy  of  Concordia  is  seen  on 
some  Roman  coins. 

18.  Who  were  the  Fauns  ?—Th&  Romans  considered  them 
to  be  the  gods  of  the  woods  and  groves,  and  in  form  they 
resembled  the  Satyrs,  of  the  Greek  mythology. 

19.  Who  was  the  Czmicean  ^//^j/.?— She  was  one  of  the 
Grecian  sibyls,  who  was  transferred  by  the  poets  to  the 
caverns  of  Cuma,  in  southern  Italy,  adjoining  the  Lake  ol 
Avernus. 

20.  Who  were  the  Cifjuneriajts  f—Th^y  were  a  fabulous  race 
of  savages  who  lived  in  perpetual  darkness,  where  the  sun 
never  shines.  From  them  we  have  the  phrase  "  Cimmerian 
darkness." 

21.  What  is  Avernus  .?— It  is  a  lake  situated  amidst  woods 
and  mountains,  formed  in  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano, 
between  Puteoli  and  Baiae,  in  the  Bay  of  Naples.  By  the 
poet  Virgil  it  was  described  as  the  entrance  to  the  infernal 
world,  and  gave  rise  to  the  well-known  saying  in  the  Latin  : 
"  Facilis  descettsus  Averno" — meaning,  easy  is  the  descent  to 
Avernus  (or  to  that  which  is  evil). 

22.  What  were  the  augurs? — They  were  persons  who  were 
believed  to  be  interpreters  of  the  divine  will,  and  were 
gravely  consulted  for  this  purpose  by  the  chief-magistrate 
and  others.  Their  divination  consisted  in  drawing  auguries 
from  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  flights  of  birds,  the  running 
of  certain  quadrupeds  across  a  path,  and  so  on.  Hence  the 
English  term  augury. 

23.  What  were  the  auspices  f—Th^y  were  divinations  of  a 

12 


O 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


"The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators.— See    page    278 


266 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y--ROME. 


peculiar  kind,  and  unless  such  were  favorable  to  a  candidate 
for  office,  he  could  not  be  appointed.  The  power  of  taking 
the  auspices  in  war  was  confined  to  the  commander-in-chief. 
The  term  auspices  is  derived  from  avis,  a  bird,  and  specio,  I 
see  or  inspect— the  auspices  being  taken  from  observing  the 
flight  of  birds. 

24.  Who  was  Coriolanusf—YiQ  was  a  haughty  patrician, 
who.  during  a  famine  in  Rome.  491  b.  C,  proposed  to  starve 
the  plebs  unless  they  relinquished  their  privileges,  and  abol- 
ished the  office  of  tribune.  Impeached  and  banished,  he  re- 
belliously  headed  an  army  of  Volscians,  and  was  prevented 
from  attacking,  and  destroying  Rome  only  by  the  entreaties 
of  his  mother.  Veturia.  Coriolan  us  was  afterwards  assassin- 
ated by  the  Volscians. 

25.  Who  was  Cincinnatusf—WQ  was  a  patrician  who  was 
distinguished  for  his  remarkable  honesty,  ability,  and  sim- 
plicity of  manners.  Being  chosen  consul,  the  messengers 
who  went  to  intimate  his  election  found  him  in  his  fields  at 
the  plough.  458  B.  C.  He  regretfully  accepted  office,  and  on 
this  and  subsequent  occasions  rendered  valuable  services  to 
the  country,  for  which  he  was  greatly  revered.  Ancient 
history  presents  no  finer  character  than  Cincinnatus. 

26.  Where  was  Gaul? — It  was  the  country  now  known  as 
France,  and  was  called  Gallia  by  the  Romans,  in  whose  time 
it  was  inhabited  chiefly  by  a  branch  of  the  Celtic  people.  A 
part  of  the  north  of  Italy  was  called  Cisalpine  Gaul. 

27.  When  did  the  Gauls  invade  Italy  ? — Their  first  warlike  in- 
vasion of  Italy  took  place  under  Brennus,  when  they  de- 
feated the  Romans,  and  sacked  and  burned  Rome,  390  B.  c. 

28.  How  was  the  capital  saved  by  the  cackling  of  geese  ? — It  is 
related  that  during  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls 
they  attempted  to  seize  the  capitol,  which  had  stood  out 
against  them.  The  attempt  was  made  by  scaling  the  rock  of 
the  Capitoline  Hill  during  the  night ;  but  their  movements 
alarmed  the  geese  sacred  to  Juno,  and  these  birds  beginning 
to  cackle,  the  garrison  were  roused,  and  the  capitol  saved. 

29.  Did  the  Romans  recover  from  the  invasion  of  the  Gauls  f 
^Yes;  they  ultimately  expelled  the  invaders,  and  from  a 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133, 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—ROME.  267 

sentiment  of  ambition  as  well  as  a  desire  to  secure  them- 
selves from  similar  attacks,  began  a  series  of  wars  against  the 
Tusci,  Volscians,  and  other  petty  nations  in  Italy,  which, 
though  led  by  Pyrrhus,  an  able  Greek  general,  were  all  sub- 
dued by  the  Romans  previous  to  275  B.  C. 

30.  Who  was  Marcus  Curtius  ? — He  was  a  noble  Roman 
youth  who  lived  about  the  time  of  the  invasion  by  the  Gauls. 
According  to  legend,  he  heroically  sacrificed  his  life  for  the 
welfare  of  the  country,  362  B.  C.  A  chasm,  it  is  said,  had 
opened  in  the  forum,  and  the  soothsayers  predicted  that 
some  great  calamity  would  happen  if  there  was  not  thrown 
into  the  opening  the  best  wealth  of  the  state.  While  the 
public  were  considering  what  this  best  wealth  could  be,  Cur- 
tius appeared  on  horseback,  and  in  full  armor,  and  ex- 
claimed :  "  Rome  has  no  greater  riches  than  courage  and 
arms."  He  then  rode  over  the  precipice  into  the  chasm 
which  immediately  closed  over  him. 

31.  Which  was  the  country  of  the  Tusci? — It  was  called 
Etruria;  and  was  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Arno,  north  of 
Rome  ;  Etruria  was  celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of  earthen- 
ware, specim.ens  of  which,  known  as  Etruscan  tiles  and 
vases,  have  latterly  been  discovered.  The  ancient  country 
of  the  Tusci  is  now  called  Tuscany,  of  which  Florence  is  the 
capital. 

32.  Who  were  the  Tribunes? — They  were  officers  appointed 
to  protect  the  plebs  from  the  tyranny  of  the  patrician  magis- 
trates ;  their  institution  took  place  on  the  occasion  of  a 
civil  tumult,  493  B.  C.  ;  afterwards,  military  tribunes  were  also 
appointed.  The  word  tribune  is  from  the  Latin  tribus,  a 
tribe. 

33.  Was  the  government  of  the  Roman  republic  conducted 
'peacefully  ? — No ;  from  first  to  last  it  was  attended  with  con- 
stant dissensions  among  the  different  classes,  also  a  prodi- 
gious degree  of  corruption,  and  often  the  commonwealth 
was  saved  only  by  the  energy  of  individuals  and  the  adopt- 
tion  of  extraordinary  expedients.  A  source  of  discord  was 
removed  by  an  assimilation  of  the  privileges  of  the  patri- 
cians and  plebs,  286  B.  C. 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65 


268  ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  Y—ROME. 

34.  Who  were  the  lictors? — They  were  the  official  attend 
ants  of  the  highest  magistrates,  before  whom,  in  processio  is 
they  earned  fasces,  clearing  the  way  ;  they  acted  also 
as  executioners.  The  fasces  consisted  of  a  bundle  (  f 
rods  with  the  head  of  an  axe  projecting  from  the 
middle  of  it.  The  term  lictor  is  believed  to  come 
from  the  Latin  ligo,  to   bind. 

35.  What  was  the  Plebiscitum  ? — It  was  a  general 
vote  or  resolution  of  the  plebs  in  favor  of  any  meas- 
ure, which  became  law  on  receiving  the  sanction  of 
the  patrician  senate. 

36.  What  were  the  Censors,  Qticestors,  and  ^di'les  ? —  Fasces. 
The  censors  were  administrators  of  the  public  revenue,  and 
took  note  of  the  number,  property,  and  rank  of  citizens  ;  they, 
besides,  exercised  a  general  control  over  the  morals  of  the 
community,  and  in  this  respect  were  invested  with  almost 
unlimited  power.  The  qusestors  kept  the  public  accounts  ; 
the  asdiles  superintended  the  arrival  of  provisions,  guarded 
the  public  monuments,  and  prepared  the  games  and  public 
shows. 

37.  Who  were  the  Prcetors? — They  were  six  in  number  :  two 
presided  over  the  tribunals  at  Rome,  but  subsequently  they 
were  appointed  to  govern  provinces  and  command  the 
armies.  It  was  necessary  to  be  a  praetor  before  being  a  can- 
didate for  the  consulship  ;  and  a  consul,  after  his  term  of  a 
year  expired,  was  eligible  as  proconsul  or  governor  of  a  dis- 
tant dependency. 

38.  Who  were  the  Dictators? — A  dictator  was  a  magistrate 
appointed  in  extreme  emergencies  to  exercise  supreme  rule 
for  a  period  of  six  months  ;  in  fact,  dictators  were  tempo- 
rary despots. 

39.  What  was  the  practice  of  candidates  for  office? — They 
were  obliged  to  wear  a  white  gown  ;  and  as  the  Latin  for 
white  is  candidus,  the  term  candidate  was  thus  originated. 

40.  Did  the  Romans  impart  the  privilege  of  citizenship  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  subdued  provinces  ? — At  first  they 'did 
so  only  to  a  limited  extent — such  as  to  descendants  of 
Romans,  and  to  persons  of  note ;  but  gradually  the  privilege 


Julius    Caesar,  a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47. 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—ROME. 


269 


was  extended,  until,  under  the  emperors,  whole  nations  re- 
ceived it.  The  conquered  provinces,  however,  were  allowed 
to  retain  their  own  religious  observances,  municipal  laws, 
and  usages. 

41.  Was  the  privilege  of  Roman  citizenship  highly  prized? — 
Yes  ;  it  was  considered  a  very  high  honor  to  be  able  to  say, 
Romanus  sum,  I  am  a  Roman,  for  it  insured  respect,  and  con- 
ferred the  right  of  appealing  to  the  tribunals  at  Rome  for  a 
redress  of  grievances. 

42.  Give  an  instance  of  an  appeal  to  Rome? — Paul  having 
been  illegally  imprisoned  by  the  Roman  proconsul  at  Caes- 
area,  fearlessly  appealed  to  Rome  on  the  ground  of  being  a 
Roman  citizen,  and  thus  successfully  stayed  persecution. 
He  had  acquired  the  right  of  appeal  by  being  a  native  of 
Tarsus,  a  city  in  Asia  Minor,  to  whose  inhabitants  the  Romans 
had  imparted  the  privileges  of  citizenship. 

43.  What  were  the  Ptmic  wars? — They  were  wars  under- 
taken by  the  Romans  against  the  Carthaginians,  a  maritime 
people,  named  from  their  capital,  Carthage,  which  was  in 
Africa,  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  during 
the  Punic  wars — between  264  b.  c.  and  146  B.  C. — that  the 
Romans  became  a  maritime  power. 

44.  Why  were  the  wars  called  "Pmtic  ?" — Because  the 
Carthaginians  were  descendants  of  the  Phoinikes,  or  Phoe- 
nicians. 

45.  Who  was  Hannibal?— Yi^  was  the  leader  of  the  Cartha^ 
ginians,  and  with  a  large  army  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and 
Alps  to  attack  the  Romans  ;  he  was,  however,  obliged  to  re- 
tire to  Africa,  and  was  defeated  by  Scipio,  202  b.  c. 

46.  Who  was  Fabius? — He  was  the  Roman  general  who 
outmanoeuvred  Hannibal  in  Italy,  by  weakening  and  fatiguing 
the  Carthaginians  by  marches  and  delays.  From  this  discreet 
caution  in  damaging  an  enemy  without  risking  a  battle  has 
arisen  the  phrase,  "  Fabian  policy." 

47.  What  was  meant  by  "Punic  faith  ?" — The  Romans  ac- 
cused the  Carthaginians  of  being  treacherous,  and  they  iron- 
ically used  the  phrase  Punic  a  fides,  Punic  faith,  as  equivalent 
to  faithlessness. 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


270 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— ROME. 


48.  Who  was  Cato? — He  was  a  Roman  senator  who  became 
censor  184  B.  C;  in  character,  he  was  honest  but  noisy  and 
intractable.  Taking  umbrage  at  Carthage,  as  being  a  rival  of 
Italian  cities,  he  inveighed  against  it,  and  is  chiefly  remem- 
bered for  his  famous  oratorical  diatribes  against  that  unfor- 
tunate city.  Whatever  was  the  subject  of  his  harangue,  he 
wound  up  with  the  phrase  Delenda  est  Carthago,  "  Carthage 
must  be  destroyed." 

49.  When  was  Carthage  destroyed? — It  was  destroyed  by  a 
Roman  army  under  Scipio  ^milianus,  adopted  grandson  of  the 
great  Scipio,  146  B.  c,  when  the  city,  which  contained  700,000 
inhabitants,  was  razed  to  the  ground. 

50.  Why  did  the  Romans  attack  Greece  ? — They  took  offence 
at  Philip  v.,  king  of  Macedon  and  ruler  of  Greece,  for  having 
entered  into  a  treaty  with  Hannibal,  and  levying  war  against 
him,  they  subjugated  Macedon  and  Greece,  148  b.  c.  ;  the 
Romans  afterwards  subdued  the  Grecian  monarchies  in  Egypt 
and  Asia. 

51.  Who  were  the  Gracchi ?— They  were  two  brothers  who, 
as  an  act  of  justice  to  the  plebs,  attempted  to  effect  some  re- 
forms connected  with  the  division  of  lands,  in  which  they 
were  unsuccessful.  One  after  the  other  was  set  upon,  and 
killed  at  the  instigation  of  the  patrician  order,  and  many 
thousands  were  slain,  particularly  at  the  last  of  these  civic 
uproars.  121  B.C. 

52.  What  was  the  Jugurthine  war? -It  was  a  war  undertaken 
by  the  Romans  to  rescue  Numidia  in  Africa  from  a  usurper 
named  Jugurtha,  who  after  some  trouble  was  brought  to 
Rome  in  chains  by  Marius  and  starved  to  death  in  prison, 
106  B.  c.     This  war  also  brought  Sulla,  a  general,  into  notice. 

53.  What  was  the  Cimbric  war?.  -It  was  a  war  against  the 
Cimbri,  a  numerous  tribe  of  Celts  who  had  thrown  Gaul  into 
a  state  of  consternation,  and  threatened  Italy.  The  Cimbri 
were  suppressed  with  great  slaughter  by  Marius,  loi  b.  c 
Immediately  afterwards  Marius  further  distinguished  himself 
by  quelling  a  rebellion  in  Italy,  called  the  Social  War,  from 
the  Latin  socius,  an  ally. 

54.  What  was  the  fate  of  Marius .?  -After  rendering  impor- 


Croesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  ^A/^ealth.— See   page   234. 


% 


n 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— ROME.  2^\ 

tant  services  to  the  commonwealth,  and  being  several  times 
consul,  he  was  proscribed  by  his  rival  Sulla,  when  he  fled, 
and  is  said  to  have  sought  refuge  in  Africa  amidst  the  ruins 
of  Carthage.  He  afterwards  returned  to  Rome,  and  died, 
worn  out  with  sufferings,  86  B.  C. 

55.  Who  was  Sulla? — He  was  a  Roman  general  and  states- 
man, the  head  of  the  patrician  party,  and  therefore  the 
opponent  of  Marius,  the  leader  of  the  plebeians.  The  strug- 
gle between  the  two  was  of  the  most  desperate  and  sanguin- 
ary character ;  after  the  death  of  Marius,  the  genius  of  Sulla 
triumphed  over  his  lesser  adversaries,  and  a  dreadful  perse- 
cution, known  as  the  Sullan  Proscription,  followed,  B.C.  81, 
during  which  period,  and  for  some  time  after,  he  held  the 
oflSce  of  dictator. 

56.  Who  was  Catiline? — He  was  a  Roman  of  good  birth,  but 
of  audacious  character,  who  headed  a  band  of  conspirators  to 
usurp  power,  and  seize  upon  and  divide  the  public  treasures. 
He  was  inveighed  against  in  the  senate  by  Cicero  in  a  cele- 
brated oration,  in  which  occurs  the  exclamation,  often 
quoted,  O  tempora,  O  mores  ! — O  times,  O  manners  !  Catiline 
was  killed  while  rebelliously  fighting  against  the  republic,  62 
B.C.  The  history  of  Catiline's  conspiracy  is  related  by 
Sallust. 

57.  Who  was  Pompey? — He  was  a  military  commander  and 
consul  who  effected  various  conquests  in  Asia,  took  Jerusa- 
lem, and  imposed  a  heavy  tribute  on  the  Jews  ;  afterwards, 
he  became  the  rival  of  Caius  Julius  Caesar,  by  whom  he  and 
his  partisans  were  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  48  B.  c. 
Pompey  was  killed  soon  afterwards. 

58.  Who  was  Caius  Julius  Ccesar? — He  was  the  greatest 
general  which  the  Roman  commonwealth  had  produced,  and 
was  equally  distinguished  as  a  historian,  statesman,  and 
orator.  He  is  remembered  chiefly  for  his  conquests  in  Gaul 
and  invasion  of  Britain  of  which  he  has  given  an  account  in 
his  celebrated  work.  The  wars  i7i  Gaul.  Caesar  also  rendered 
important  military  services  to  the  commonwealth  in  Egypt 
and  Asia  Minor. 

59.  What  was  the  memorable  announcement  of  Ccesar/rom  Asia 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second. — See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821— See  page  4" 


272  ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—ROME. 

AftHor  T— Having  ended  the  war  against  Pharnaces,  son  of 
Mithridates,  in  a  single  battle,  he  sent  to  Rome  the  famous 
dispatch,  consisting  of  three  words,  Vem,  vidi,  vici,  I  came 
I  saw,  I  conquered. 

60.  What  is  i?teant  by  "passing  the  Rubicon  ?" — That  refers 
to  an  important  incident  in  the  life  of  Csesar.  By  an  intrigue 
of  Pompey  and  others  at  Rome,  Csesar  was  ordered  by  the 
senate  to  resign  his  command  in  Gaul  within  a  certain  time, 
or  be  proclaimed  a  traitor  to  the  republic.  Disobeying  this 
order  he  hastened  to  Rome  with  his  army,  crossing  the  Rubi- 
con, a  small  river  on  the  boundary  of  Italy,  and  thereby  com- 
mitted himself  to  the  result.  When  any  one,  therefore,  com- 
mits himself  by  a  certain  act,  he  is  said  to  have  "passed  the 
Rubicon,"  or  done  that  which  cannot  be  recalled. 

61.  Was  CcEsar  successful  on  passing  the  Rubicon  ? — Yes  ;  he 
made  himself  master  of  Italy.  The  republic  was  now  sub- 
stantially at  an  end,  and  by  the  defeat  of  Pompey,  Caesar 
had  become  supreme  commander  of  the  force  and  chief  ruler, 
under  the  title  of  Princeps  Senatus,  or  Chief  of  the  Senate,  in 
which  capacity  he  effected  many  beneficial  reforms. 

62.  Who  was  Marcus  Junius  Brutus  ? — He  was  a  senator  of 
literary  habits,  who  conspired  with  Cassius,  Casca,  and  others, 
to  assassinate  Caesar;  his  wife  was  Portia,  a  daughter  of  Cato 
the  younger. 

63.  When  was  CcEsar  killed? — He  was  assassinated  at  Rome 
March  15— called  in  the  Roman  reckoning  the  Ides  of  March 
—44  B.  c. 

64.  What  were  the  incidents  of  this  foul  affair? — Caesar  was 
first  struck  by  the  dagger  of  Casca  in  the  neck,  and  then  was 
attacked  by  others,  against  whom  he  defended  himself,  un- 
til he  was  struck  by  his  old  friend  Brutus,  when  he  mourn- 
fully exclaimed  :  Et  tu.  Brutal  ("And  thou,  Brutus !"),  and 
covering  his  face  decorously  with  his  mantle,  he  lell,  pierced 
by  twenty-three  wounds,  at  the  foot  of  Pompey's  statue. 

65.  What  is  now  the  general  opinion  concerning  Casar  ? — 
Without  vindicating  his  ambition,  or  extenuating  his  errors, 
it  is  thought  that  he  only  interposed  to  save  the  state  from 
the  dissolution  which  was  likely  to  ensue  from  the  intrigues 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


V 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—ROME. 


273 


of  demagogues  and  a  most  corrupt  political  system  ;  that  in 
fact,  the  time  having  arrived  for  a  despotism  to  secure  public 
order,  circumstances  brought  Caesar  into  the  position  which 
he  had  the  tact  to  accept  and  ability  to  occupy. 

66.  Did  the  assassinatio7t  of  Ccssar  briitg  back  the  republic? — 
Not  at  all ;  it  only  opened  the  way  to  power  for  a  long  line 
of  successors. 

67.  Who  were  Ccesars  immediate  szeccessors  ? — They  were 
three  persons,  known  as  the  Triumvirate,  who  wanted  to 
avenge  Caesar's  death— Mark  Antony,  Lepidus,  and  Octavius, 
a  young  man,  grand-nephew  of  Caesar,  who  now  assumed  the 
name  of  Caius  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus.  At  the  battle  of 
Philippi,  42  B.  C,  they  defeated  the  republican  forces  under 
Brutus  and  Cassias,  and  each  took  a  share  of  the  Roman 
dominions.  In  a  state  of  desperation  Cassius  and  Brutus 
killed  themselves. 

68.  What  was  the  remarkable  saying  of  Brutus  respecting 
Cassius  f — That  he  was  Ultiittus  Romanoru7n— the.  last  of  the 
Romans;  meaning,  that  with  him  the  ancient  national  spirit 
would  be  extinct. 

69.  What  was  the  fate  of  Lepidus  ? — Octavianus  quarrelled 
with  him,  and  took  his  share  of  the  Roman  dominions,  where- 
upon he  retired  into  private  life. 

70.  What  was  the  fate  of  Mark  Antony? — A  rupture  took 
.5          place  between  him  and  Octavianus ;  he  was  defeated  at  the 

naval  engagement  of  Actium,  off  the  coast  of  Epirus,  31  B.  C, 
and  fled  to  Egypt  with  Cleopatra,  where  both  died  by  their 
own  hands,  30  B.C. 

71.  Who  was  Cleopatra? — She  was  a  beautiful  Egyptian 
princess,  who  underwent  various  strange  adventures ;  not 
willing  to  survive  Mark  Antony,  she  is  said  to  have  killed 
herself  by  causing  an  asp  to  bite  her  breast.  This  extraordi- 
nary death  of  Cleopatra  has  been  pictured  by  several  artists. 

72.  What  was  the  fate  of  Octavia7tus  ? — By  the  death  of  Mark 
Antony,  he  remained  sole  ruler,  when  he  assumed  the  desig- 
nation of  Augustus  Caesar,  or  more  simply  Augustus — a  word 
signifying  the  "venerable"  or  "sacred" — under  which  name 
he  was  the  first  of  the  Roman  emperors. 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503.— See  page  181. 


274  ANCIENT  HISTORY— ROME. 

73.  How  long  did  the  Roman  republic  laslf— From  509  to  30 
B.  C,  or  479  years. 

74.  IV/ten  Augustus  became  emperor,  what  was  the  extent  oj 
ike  Roman  dominions? — They  comprehended  Italy,  Gaul, 
Iberia  or  Spain,  Greece,  and  some  other  countries  in  Europe, 
also  most  of  northern  Africa,  and  extensive  territories  in  Asia, 
including  Palestine. 

75.  Whowas  McBcenas? — He  was  a  wealthy  Roman  states- 
man, in  the  reign  of  Augustus  ;  retiring  from  public  life,  he 
kept  an  open  table  for  men  of  parts  at  his  fine  house  on  the 
Esquiline  Hill,  and  was  renowned  as  a  munificent  patron  of 
literature. 

76.  What  is  meant  by  the  "Augustan  Age?" — It  was  the 
period  that  elapsed  during  the  reign  of  Augustus,  who  ruled 
with  great  clemency  and  discretion,  reformed  innumerc  ble 
abuses,  embellished  Rome,  and  was  a  patron  of  art  and  learn- 
ing, which  under  him  greatly  flourished. 

'j'j.  When  did  Augustus  die? — He  died  14  A.  D.,  and  was 
universally  lamented  both  as  an  emperor  and  as  pontifex 
maximus.  In  dying,  his  last  words  to  his  attendants  were  ; 
"  Have  I  played  my  part  well?     If  so,  applaud  me." 

78.  Who  were  the  successors  of  Augustus .?— His  four  imme- 
diate successors  were  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Claudius  and  Nero, 
who  became  emperors  from  some  claim  of  relationship  to 
the  family  of  Augustus  ;  afterwards,  the  appointment  to  the 
office  of  emperor  lay  with  the  army,  or  was  given  to  the  per- 
son who  rendered  himself  most  popular  by  profuse  expendi- 
ture on  public  feasts,  pageants,  and  gladiatorial  exhibitions. 

79.  What  was  latterly  the  favorite  cry  of  the  Roma7ts  ? — It 
was  Panis  et  Circenses,  "  Bread  and  Circuses"— meaning,  that 
all  they  wanted  was  to  be  fed  and  amused  with  shows  at  the 
public  expense. 

80.  Who  was  Pr(Efectus  Utbis? — Under  the  emperors,  he 
was  the  magistrate  who  had  charge  of  the  whole  city  of  Rome 
—the  term  urbis  signifying  "  of  the  city."  The  modern  French 
Viox^  pr^fet  is  from  t\\Q  prcsfectus  of  the  Romans. 

81.  Were  the  Roman  emperors  successively  called  Ccesar  f -^ 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,    in   Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Guds. — See  page   248. 


ANC1EN7  HISTORY— ROME.  275 

Yes  ;  they  were  all  called  Csesar,  that  being  perpetuated  as 
an  imperial  distinction,  and  as  such  is  referred  to  in  the  New 
Testament;  for  example,  Christ  holding  up  a  Roman  coin, 
and,  pointing  to  the  inscription  on  it,  said  :  "  Render  unto 
Csesar  the  things  which  be  Caesar's,  and  unto  God  the  things 
which  be  God's"  (Luke  xx.  25). 

82.  In  what  reign  was  Christ  crucified  at  Jerusalem? — In  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  33  a.  d. 

83.  What  was  the  original  name  of  Caligula  ? — It  was  Caius 
Caesar,  to  whom  the  soldiers  gave  the  name  Caligula,  or 
"  Little  Boots,"  on  account  of  his  wearing  small  boots,  called 
caligcB.  Under  this  surname,  after  becoming  emperor,  he 
committed  most  extraordinary  excesses  of  folly  and  tyranny : 
one  of  his  wishes  was  that  the  whole  Roman  people  had  but 
one  head,  that  he  might  be  able  to  cut  it  off  at  a  single  blow. 

84.  What  was  the  na7ne  of  Caligula  s  favorite  horse  ? — It  was 
Incitatus  ;  this  animal  had  a  house  and  servant,  and  was  fed 
from  marble  and  gold  vessels  ;  Caligula  also  caused  him  to  be 
admitted  into  the  college  of  priests,  and  appointed  him  con- 
sul. This  emperor,  who  was  in  reality  a  madman,  was  mur- 
dered in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  41  A.  D. 

85.  What  was  the  character  of  Nero  ? — He  began  his  reign 
with  remarkable  clemency,  but  afterwards  became  a  sensual 
and  cruel  tyrant,  and  for  mere  amusement  caused  Rome  to 
be  set  on  fire ;  anticipating  punishment  for  his  crimes,  he 
committed  suicide,  68  a.  d. 

86.  Who  succeeded  Nero  .^— Galba,  Otho,  Vitellus,  Vespasian, 
Titus,  Domitian,  Nerva,  Trajan,  Hadrian,  Antoninus  Pius,  and 
about  twenty  others  until  Domitian  and   Maximian. 

Z^.  Did  the  senate  continue  to  act  under  the  emperors? — It 
existed  till  the  last,  but  only  as  a  dependent  body,  which  ob- 
sequiously registered  the  decrees  of  the  emperors. 

88.  When  was  Britain  added  to  the  Roman  dominion  ? — It  was 
subdued  by  Agricola,  about  70  A.  D.,  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian, 
the  country  having  been  previously  visited  by  Julius  Caesar. 

89.  What  wds  the  "  Ultima  Thule"  of  the  Romans  ? — It  was 
the  most  remote  northern  island  with  which  they  were  ac- 
quainted, but  which  island  that  was  is  uncertain.      It  is  gen* 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page 


230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


276 


A  NCI  EN  r  HIS  TOR  Y—R  OME. 


erally  thought  to  have  been  one  of  the  Orkney  or  Shetland 
Islands,  lying  north  from  Scotland. 

90.  By  what  means  did  the  Romans  achieve  their  extraor^ 
dinary  conquests?— \t  was  by  their  military  skill  and  discipline, 
along  with  an  inordinate  ambition  and  spirit  of  patriotism. 

91.  What  was  a  Roman  legion? — It  was  an  army  consisting 
originally  of  4500  soldiers ;  but  this  number  was  latterly 
raised  to  6000,  who  were  divided  into  ten  cohorts.  The 
soldiers,  who  were  called  legionaries,  were  of  two  chief 
classes — trained  men  on  foot,  and  equites,  or  cavalry;  besides 
which  there  was  a  ho^y  oi  velites,  ox  skirmishers.  Each  le- 
gion carried  its  distinguishing  standard. 

92.  What  was  a  centurion? — Centurions  were  of  different 
ranks;  a  chief  centurion  was  equivalent  to  a  modern  lieu- 
tenant-colonel ;  beneath  him  there  were  second  centurions 
and  other  inferior  officers. 

93.  What  was  the  equipment  of  the  Roman  legionaries  ? — They 
wore  a  plumed  helmet  and  breast-plate,  and  carried  a  javelin, 
which  they  threw  on  advancing;  but  their  chief  reliance  was 
on  a  short  double-edged  sword.  It  was  a  dreadful  onset  with 
their  short  swords  that  gave  the  Romans  their  numerous 
victories. 

94.  What  was  the  form  of  the  Roman  standards  ? — They  con- 
sisted of  a  spear-staff,  bearing  on  the  top  some  kind  of 
emblem,  beneath  which  was  usually  a 
small  banner.  The  emblem  was  in 
some  cases  a  ball,  significant  of  univer- 
sal dominion,  but  more  commonly  it 
was  an  eagle  in  gold,  about  the  size  of 
a  pigeon.  The  ordinary  inscription  on 
the  banner  consisted  of  the  letters,  S.  P. 
Q.  R.  While  such  were  the  principal 
military  standards,  many  of  a  subordi- 
nate kind  were  employed  to  distinguish 
the  cohorts,  also  as  signals  for  the 
soldiers  to  assemble,  advance,  or  retreat. 

95.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  letters 
S.  P.  Q.  R.  on  Roman  standards  ? — These         Roman  standard. 


The   Bastile   was  a   Prison  in   Paris ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— ROME.  277 

letters  are  an  abbreviation  of   Senatus   Populusque   Ro- 
MANUS,  signifying  "the  Roman  Senate  and  People." 

96.  What  was  the  population  of  the  Roman  empire? — After 
the  conquest  of  Britain,  the  population  numbered  upwards 
of  a  hundred  millions,  composed  of  various  nations,  and 
speaking  various  languages  ;  but  of  that  vast  population,  it  is 
calculated  that  fully  one-half  were  slaves. 

97.  Were  the  Roinan  slaves  black?— Only  those  brought 
from  Africa  were  black ;  in  Rome,  there  were  many  white 
slaves  who  had  been  brought  from  Greece,  Gaul.  Britain,  and 
other  countries,  to  minister  to  the  luxurious  and  cruel  habits 
of  the  people. 

98.  What  was  the  size  and  condition  of  Rome? — In  the  first 
century  of  our  era,  Rome  attained  to  a  vast  size  and  degree 
of  magnificence;  its  population  was  about  two  millions. 

99.  Mention  some  of  the  chief  places  and  buildings. — The 
Capitol,  the  Roman  Forum,  the  Coliseum,  and  the  Panthecn, 
also  numerous  palaces,  temples,  theatres,  baths,  triumphal 
arches,  bridges,  and  monumental  pillars. 

100.  What  were  the  seven  hills  of  Rome? — The  Capitoline. 
the  Palatine,  the  Aventine,  the  Caelian,  the  Esquiline,  the 
Viminal,  and  the  Quirinal,  all  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tiber.  Besides  these,  there  is  a  hill  called  thePincian;  but 
it  was  not  originally  included  in  the  city. 

loi.  What  is  the  height  of  these  hills  ? — Only  from  a  hundred 
and  twenty  to  a  hundred  and  eighty  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  Campus  Martins. 

102.  What  is  the  Campus  Martius  ? — It  is  a  level  plain  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  originally  used  for  martial  exercises, 
but  it  was  afterwards  occupied  by  the  Pantheon  and  other 
public  buildings,  and  on  it  are  built  the  principal  streets  of 
modern  Rome. 

103.  What  was  the  Pantheon? — It  was  a  magnificent  tem- 
ple erected  by  Agrippa  in  the  centre  of  the  Campus  Martius, 
and  was  dedicated  by  Augustus,  7  B.  C,  in  honor  of  the  gods 
who  were  connected  with  the  family  of  Julius  Caesar.  The 
term  Pantheon  is  from  the  Greek /a;?,  all,  and  theos,  god.  The 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C.— See  page  273. 


278 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—ROME. 


Pantheon  is  the  only  building  of  ancient  Rome  which  now 
remains  entire. 

104.  What  was  the  Capitol?— \\,  was  the  state  fortress  of 
ancient  Rome,  built  on  the  Capitoline  Hill,  and  included  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  which  served  as  a  national 
sanctuary;  adjoining  was  the  Temple  of  Concord,  where  the 
Senate  usually  met. 

105.  What  was  the  Tarpeian  rock?—\\,viz.^  a  precipice  on 
the  side  of  the  Capitoline  Hill,  and  took  its  name  from 
Tarpeia,  daughter  of  the  governor  of  the  citadel,  who  opened 
the  gates  to  the  Sabines,  and  was  killed  by  being  smothered 
beneath  their  shields.  It  became  the  practice  to  throw  state 
criminals  down  the  Tarpeian  precipice. 

106.  What  was  the  Roman  forum  f—lt  was  an  extensive  en- 
closure embellished  with  handsome  buildings,  where  orators 
delivered  addresses  to  the  civic  magistracy  and  citizens,  and 
which  otherwise  was  a  place  of  public  resort ;  here,  likewise, 
were  held  courts  of  justice.  Besides  the  Roman  forum,  there 
were  other  forums  used  for  similar  purposes. 

107.  What  were  the  rostra  in  the  forurns? — They  were  the 
scaffolds  from  which  the  orators  delivered  their  harangues, 
and  hence  our  word  rostrum. 

108.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  term  rostra  ? — Rostra  signi- 
fied primarily  the  beaks  of  birds.  It  became  a  practice  to 
fashion  the  prows  of  war-vessels  as  the  beaks  of  these  ani- 
mals, and  being  called  rostra,  that  was  the  secondary  mean- 
ing of  the  term.  The  Romans,  under  the  republic,  having 
captured  a  ship  of  war,  brought  its  rostrum  to  Rome  as  a 
trophy,  and  placing  it  in  the  forum  as  a  scaffold  for  orators, 
the  term  rostrum  (plural,  rostra)  came  at  length  to  signify  a 
kind  of  stage  or  pulpit  for  speakers. 

109.  What  was  the  Coliseum  ? — Coliseum,  or  Colosseum,  is 
the  modern  name  for  an  amphitheatre  or  circus  of  enormous 
dimensions,  begun  by  Vespasian  and  completed  by  Titus,  80 
A.  D. ;  it  covered  five  acres,  and  contained  seats  for  87,000 
persons  ;  part  of  it  still  exists  as  an  extraordinary  architec- 
tural curiosity. 

no.   Were  there  any  other  amphitheatres? — Yes ;  there  were 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought   June    i8,    1815. — See   page    368. 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—ROME.  279 

several  in  different  Roman  cities  in  Italy  and  the  provinces. 
The  term  amphitheatre  is  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies  a 
theatre  with  ascending  seats  all  round,  from  which  spectators 
may  look  down  on  a  cleared  central  space  where  spectacles 
were  exhibited. 


The  Coliseum. 

111.  What  were  the  chief  spectacles  in  the  Roman  amphi- 
theatres?— They  consisted  of  combats  of  men  with  ferocious 
wild  animals,  brought  from  Asia  and  Africa  for  the  purpose, 
also  fights  of  gladiators. 

112.  Who  were  the  gladiators  ? — They  were  for  the  most 
part  slaves  or  prisoners  of  war,  who  were  obliged  to  fight  in 
mortal  combat  for  the  public  entertainment  ;  they  fought 
naked  and  in  pairs,  each  being  provided  with  a  sword  and 
shield.  The  term  gladiator  is  from  the  Latin  gladius,  a 
sword. 

113.  Did  the  gladiators  exhibit  at  private  entertainmefits? — 
Yes;  it  was  customary  for  persons  of  distinction  to  employ 
them  to  fight  and  kill  each  other  for  the  amusement  of  guests, 
at  funeral  ceremonies,  marriages,  and  private  feasts — these 
barbarous  sports  tending  greatly  to  brutalize'the  feelings  of 
the  people. 

1 14.  When  a  gladiator  at  the  public  shuius  was  disabled,  how 
was  he  treated? — If  the  spectators  thought  he  had  fought 
well,  and  was  worthy  of  being  spared,  they  turned  up  their 


^ 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was    Born    1564;      Died    1616.  —  See    page     143. 


280  ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  Y—ROME. 

thumbs;  if,  on  the  contrary,  they  wished  him  to  be  killed, 
they  turned  their  thumbs  downwards,  when  his  antagonist 
gave  him  a  mortal  stab. 

115.  What  me7}torial  have  we  of  these  frightful  cruelties  ?-^ 
The  figure  of  the  dying  gladiator,  a  very  fine  piece  of  ancient 
sculpture,  casts  of  which  are  well  known. 

1 1 6.  What  jnodern  poet  has  written  touching  lines  on  the  figure 
of  the  dying  gladiator  ?— 'Lord  Byron  ;  the  following  are  the 
lines,  which  occur  in  Childe  Harold's  Pilgriinage  : 

*'  I  see  beforte  me  the  gladiator  lie  : 

He  leans  upon  his  hand  ;  his  manly  brow 

Consents  to  death,  but  conquers  agony, 

And  his  drooped  head  sinks  gradually  low  : 

And  through  his  side  the  last  drops,  ebbing  slow 

From  the  red  gash,  fall  heavy,  one  by  one, 

Like  the  first  of  a  thunder-shower  ;  and  now 

The  arena  swims  around  him  ;  he  is  gone, 
Ere  ceased  the  inhuman  shout  which  hailed  the  wretch  who  won." 

117.  How  did  the  Romans  maintain  their  conquests  ? — They 
kept  the  countries  they  conquered  by  means  of  garrisons, 
military  colonies,  and  permanent  camps,  also  by  constructing 
roads  and  establishing  a  system  of  posts  for  conveying  intel- 
ligence. Except  where  interrupted  by  seas,  the  Roman  roads 
extended  from  the  Firth  of  Forth  in  Scotland  to  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates. 

118.  Did  the  Romans  reckon  distances  by  miles? — Yes  ;  they 
had  a  length,  called  the  mill e  pas suum,  or  1000  paces,  from 
which  comes  our  word  mile  ;  the  Roman  mile,  however,  was 
only  about  1618  yards.  All  distances  throughout  the  empire 
were  reckoned  from  an  ornamental  structure  on  the  Capito- 
line  Hill,  called  the  Milliarium  Auremn,  which  may  be  trans- 
lated the  Golden  Milestone. 

119.  What  was  the  tribute  to  Rome  ? — It  consisted  in  a  heavy 
tax  imposed  on  all  conquered  countries,  and  was  sent  with 
plunder  of  different  kinds,  such  as  slaves,  cattle,  corn,  and 
valuable  articles,  to  Rome,  which  was  enriched  and  nearly 
altogether  supported  at  the  expense  of  the  whole  empire. 

120.  Was  Jerusalem  plundered  in  that  way? — Yes;  Titus 
carried  ofi  the  whole  of  the  sacred  vessels,  the  silver  trum- 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed    in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— ROME. 


281 


pets,  the  seven-branched  candlesticks,  and  other  articles  ot 
value  from  the  temple  ;  a  representation  of  the  triumphal 
entry  of  these  things  into  Rome  is  still  seen  sculptured  on 
the  marble  arch  which  the  senate  erected  in  honor  of  Titus, 
70  A.  D. 

121.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Christians  under  the 
early  einperors  ? — They  were  subjected  to  various  persecutions 
and  cruelties,  more  particularly  those  who  were  brought  to 
Rome.  The  apostles  Peter  and  Paul  are  said  to  have  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Rome  about  66  A.  D. 

1 22.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  intercourse  between  Greece 
and  Rojnef—AitQr  the  subjugation  of  Greece,  the  Romans 
had  a  constant  intercourse  with  that  country,  from  which 
they  derived  a  knowledge  of  Greek  art,  learning,  and  philos- 
ophy, also  their  fanciful  mythological  system.  Roman 
civilization  was  only  a  reproduction  of  that  of  Greece  on  a 
(arger  scale. 

123.  Where  did  the  wealthy  Romans  build  their  country  villas  f 
—They  selected  the  country  along  the  Bay  of  Naples  for 


Arch  of  Titus. 

some  of  their  favorite  resorts.  At  these  places,  originally 
Greek  settlements,  they  built  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii, 
renovated  Neapolis  (the  modern  Naples),  and  erected  splendid 
buildings  at  Puteoli,  Baiae,  and  Cuma. 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at    Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators.— See    page    278. 


282  ANCIENT  HISTORY— ROME. 

1 24.  When  were  Pompeii  and  Herculanewn  destroyed? — Both 
were  overwhelmed  by  eruptions  of  Vesuvius  in  79  a.  d. 

125.  Where  was  Puteoli situated? — It  was  placed  on  the  sea* 
shore  a  few  miles  from  Naples  on  the  side  of  the  bay  opposite 
to  Pompeii,  and  attained  such  grandeur  and  extent  as  to  be 
called  Pusilla  Roma,  or  little  Rome.  Here  the  Apostle  Paul 
landed  on  his  way  to  Rome.  Puteoli,  sunk  to  the  condition 
of  a  small  decayed  town,  is  now  known  as  Pozzuoli. 

126.  What  were  the  Elysian  fields  ? — According  to  Greek 
and  Roman  poets,  they  were  the  abodes  of  happy  departed 
spirits,  where  all  was  serene  and  delightful ;  but  the  situation 
of  these  fields  was  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  writer. 
Virgil,  in  jEneid,  places  the  Elysian  fields  in  the  rich  plain 
near  Cuma. 

127.  What  was  Tusculum? — It  was  a  favorite  residence  of 
Cicero,  situated  near  the  modern  town  of  Frascati,  about 
twelve  miles  from  Rome.  Tusculum  is  famed  as  having  been 
the  place  where  Cicero,  when  in  retirement,  wrote  his  Tus^ 
culan  Disputations — a  wor  k  of  classic  interest. 

128.  Where  was  Hadrian's  country  residence? — It  was 
situated  near  Tivoli,  in  a  valley  named  Tempe,  from  the  cele- 
brated Tempe  in  Greece.  There,  including  palaces,  baths 
theatre,  hippodrome,  and  other  buildings  of  great  magnifi- 
cence, the  villa  covered  a  space  of  eight  to  ten  miles  in  circum- 
ference. The  whole  that  now  remains  of  this  once  magnifi- 
cent residence  is  a  few  shattered  ruins. 

129.  What  was  the  dress  of  the  Romans? — The  patricians 
and  higher  order  of  citizens  wore  loose  garments,  the  most 
conspicuous  article  of  attire  being  the  toga,  a  mantle  of  fine 
linen  or  wool.  The  common  people  wore  a  loose  tunic,  with 
a  girdle  round  the  waist.  The  Roman  soldiers  wore  a  dress 
resembling  that  of  the  modern  Highland  soldiers.  Sandals 
for  the  feet  were  worn  by  all  Romans  of  distinction;  but 
clothing  for  the  legs  came  into  use  only  in  the  later  times  of 
the  empire. 

1 30.  What  is  meant  by  being  "  raised  to  the  purple  f — Among 
the  ancients,  purple  was  a  color  highly  esteemed,  and  for 
the  dyeing  of  which  the  people  of  Tyre  gained  celebrity. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was   Killed  in  1779 See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— ROME. 


283 


Robes  of  this  precious  color  were  worn  by  the  Roman 
emperors,  and,  to  be  "  raised  to  the  purple,"  was  equivalent 
to  being  made  emperor  and  Pontifex  Maximus.  From  this 
origin  the  Roman  pontiffs  and  bishops  derive  the  custom  of 
wearing  purple  in  some  part    of  their  dress. 

131.  What  was  the  favorite  wine  of  the  Romans  ? — It  was 
the  Falernian  wine,produced  in  a  district  of  Campania,  known 
as  the  Falernus  Ager,  or  Falernian  Field.  This  wine  has 
been  extolled  by  Virgil,  Horace,  and  other  poets  for  its  fine 
qualities. 

132.  For  what  was  the  laurel einployed by  the  Romans? — The 
leaves  of  the  sweet  bay,  or  Laurusnobilis,  were  used  by  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  to  decorate  temples  and  twine  in 
wreaths  round  the  brows  of  victors  and  poets. 

133.  What  were  the  Columbaria  of  the  Romans  ? — Columbaria 
was  the  name  given  to  vaults  for  the  reception  of  urns  con- 
taining the  ashes  of  the  dead  ;  the  ashes  of  each  person  hav- 
ing been  reduced  to  a  small  quantity  by  burning  the  body  on 
a  funeral-pile.  The  term  columbaria  is  from  the  Latin  colum- 
ba,  a  pigeon,  and  was  so  applied  because  the  receptacle? 
for  the  urns  resembled  pigeon  holes.  Several  ancient  colum- 
baria exist  near  Rome  till  the  present  day,  and  are  visited  by 
strangers  as  a  curiosity.  The  ashes  of  favorite  dogs  appear 
to  have  been  allowed  a  place  in  the  columbaria,  but  the 
bodies  of  slaves  were  thrown  promiscuously  into  pits. 

134.  When  did  the  Roman  empire  begin  to  decline  ? — Though 
shaken  by  scandalous  disorders  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero,  the  empire  recovered  under 
Trajan,  and  his  successors  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines ;  but 
it  irrecoverably  declined  from  about  the  reign  of  Caracalla, 
211 — 217  A,  D.  Aurelius,  275 — 276  A.  d.,  was  an  able  and  ener- 
getic emperor;  but  after  him  the  descent  towards  ruin  be- 
came very  rapid,  and  the  division  of  the  empire  under  Dio- 
cletian,about  284  A.  D.,  might  be  called  the  finishing  blow  to 
its  ancient  power  and  grandeur. 

135.  Who  was  Constantine  ? — He  was  the  son  of  Constantius, 
successor  to  the  joint  emperors  Diocletian  and  Maximian. 
Constantine  succeeded  his  father  (who  died  at  York,  306  a.  d.) 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist. — See  page  65. 


m 


284 


A  NCI  EN  T  HIS  TOR  Y—R  OME. 


as  Caesar.  More  from  policy  than  conviction,  as  it  is  thought 
he  stopped  the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  and  closing  the 
pagan  temples,  made  Christianity  the  state  religion.  This 
important  event  occurred  324  a.  d.    Constantine  died  337  a.  d, 

136.  Who  was  Helena  ? — She  was  the  widow  of  Constantius 
and  mother  of  Constantine.  The  "  Empress"  Helena  was  can- 
onized by  the  church  for  her  zeal  in  the  advancement  of  relig- 
ion, and  her  many  acts  of  piety  and  munificence. 

137.  From  whom  does  Constantinople  take  its  najnef—  From 
Constantine,  who  founded  it  on  the  site  of  ancient  Byzantium. 

138.  Who  was  Julian? — He  was  a  nephew  of  Constantine, 
who  was  elected  emperor  by  his  soldiers  360  a.  d.,  and  having 
restored  paganism,  he  is  known  in  history  as  "Julian  the 
Apostate."  He  was  killed  in  battle,  363  A.  D.,  and  Christianity 
was  immediately  re-established. 

139.  When  was  the  Roman  ejnpire  divided? — It  was  divided, 
364  A.  D.,  when  Rome  became  the  capital  of  the  Western,  and 
Constantinople  the  Capital  of  the  Eastern  portion.  From 
this  time,  Roman  history  proper  is  confined  to  the  Western 
empire  ;  while  the  history  of  the  Eastern  part,  under  the 
name  Byzantine  empire,  belongs  to  Medieval  History. 

140.  Who  were  the  Got hs  ?— -They -wevQ  a  people  originally 
from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  who,  under  the  name  of  Visi- 
goths and  Ostrogoths,  pressed  on  the  northern  and  eastern 
parts  of  the  Roman  empire,  and,  as  did  also  other  bar- 
barous peoples— Vandals,  Franks,  Burgundians,  Alani,  and 
Huns— whose  efforts,  though  not  directed  by  any  unity  of 
purpose,  had  the  effect  of  utterly  dismembering  and  destroy- 
ing the  empire  of  the  Caesars. 

141.  Who  was  Alaric  ?—Ue  was  king  of  the  Visigoths,  a 
branch  of  the  Gothic  tribes  which  had  been  allowed  to  settle 
in  Thrace  (a  district  northwest  of  Constantinople).  Taking 
advantage  of  the  dissensions  in  the  western  empire,  Alaric 
conducted  an  army  into  Italy,  and  captured  Rome,  which  he 
sacked  and  partly  burned,  410  A.  d. 

142.  Who  was  Attila .?— He  was  a  king  or  leader  of  the  Huns, 
who  committed  the  most  insulting  and  savage  barbarities  in 
his  invasions  of  Gaul  and  Italy,  450  to  453  A.  D.     Any  military 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    iii 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47. 


ANCIENT  HISTOR  Y—ROME.  285 

invader  of  a  country  who  ruthlessly  robs  and  slaughters  the 
inhabitants,  is  styled  "a  modern  Attila." 

143.  Who  was  Rofnulus  Augustulus  ? — He  was  the  last  em- 
peror of  the  West,  and  was  deposed,  476  A.  D.,  by  Odoacer  at 
the  head  of  a  mixed  horde  of  imperial  mercenaries,  most  of 
whom  were  probably  Visigoths.  The  name  Augustulus  sig- 
nifies "Augustus  the  little,"  and  was  given  to  the  emperor 
in  contempt.  With  the  deposition  of  Romulus,  the  empire 
ended.  Reckoning  from  Romulus,  753  b.  c.  to  476  a.  d.,  the 
Roman  power  had  lasted  1229  years. 

144.  Oji  the  dissolution  of  the  Ro?nan  power,  how  many  great 
empires  had  perished ?^¥ our  are  usually  reckoned — the 
Assyrian,  Persian,  Graeco-Macedonian,  and  Roman. 

145.  What  was  the  general  character  of  the  ancient  Roma7ts  ? — 
Originally,  they  were  one  of  the  noblest  nations  of  antiquity, 
surpassing  any  of  whom  we  read  in  iron  strength  of  will,  grave 
earnestness  of  temperament,  patriotic  ardor,  and  general  in- 
tegrity of  character;  they  were,  however,  stern  and  imperi- 
ous, and  latterly  cruel,  selfish,  and  depraved  in  manners.  In 
the  grandeur  which  they  attained  by  their  conquests  and 
works  of  art  they  excite  the  wonder  of  the  modern  world, 
but  without  raising  any  sentiment  of  esteem,  or  of  pity  for 
the  ruin  which  ultimately  overtook  them. 

146.  What  moral  may  be  drawn  fro7n  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire? — It  is  that  national  power,  supported  by  continued 
violence  and  injustice,  and  associated  with  universal  corrup- 
tion of  manners,  must  inevitably,  as  bearing  the  elements  of 
dissolution,  corae  to  a  miserable  end.  Conquering  all  the 
countries  within  their  reach  by  their  military  skill  and 
courage,  the  Romans  had  no  other  object  than  to  attain 
power,  and  lay  the  subjugated  provinces  under  material 
contribution. 

147.  Were  the  Roman  conquests  of  any  immediate  benefit? — 
Yes  ;  they  were  of  value  incidentally.  Though  the  conquests 
were  most  oppressive,  the  subjugated  nations  acquired  some 
knowledge  of  useful  arts,  more  particularly  road-making, 
building,  agriculture,  and  horticulture,  from  the  Roman  oc- 
cupation ;   these  nations  also  became   acquainted  with  the 


c 

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a 

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O 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


2  86  ANCIENT  HIS  TOR  Y—ROME. 

Roman  law    and  municipal  institutions,  which  less  or  more 
retained  after  the  dissolution  of  the  empire. 

148.  Do  the  Ro7nans  deserve  praise  for  not  interfering  with 
the  religious  observances  of  the  nations  they  conquered? — No  ;  in 
ancient  times,  the  people  of  one  country  did  not  concern 
themselves  about  the  religion  of  other  countries,  and  the 
Romans  were  no  exception  to  the  rule.  We  can  give  them 
no  credit  for  toleration,  for  it  amounted,  in  some  cases,  to  a 
perversion  of  justice. 

149.  Give  an  instance. — The  Roman  proconsul,  Pilate,  found 
no  crime  or  political  offence  proved  against  Jesus,  yet,  at  the 
instigation  of  a  few  Jewish  priests  and  an  ignorant  rabble,  he 
sanctioned  his  death  by  crucifixion — the  Roman  power  thus 
disgracefully  lending  itself  to  an  action,  which  it  was  its 
duty,  as  it  ought  to  have  been  its  proud  privilege,  peremptor- 
ily to  avert. 

1 50.  If  the  Romans  were  so  tolerant,  why  did  they  persecute  the 
early  Christians? — Because  in  preaching  the  Gospel,  the 
apostolic  missionaries  necessarily  exposed  the  superstitious 
errors  of  the  Roman  polytheism,  which  was  identified  with 
the  authority  of  the  state. 

151.  Was  the  Roman  authority  of  no  value  as  respects  Chris- 
tianity?— It  was  of  much  value  after  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tine,  by  securing  protection  to  apostolic  missionaries  in  dis- 
seminating a  knowledge  of  the  Gospel ;  in  point  of  fact,  the 
rule  and  influence  of  the  church,  already  established  at  the 
fall  of  the  empire,  saved  Italy  and  the  neighboring  provinces 
from  universal  anarchy,  and  smoothed  the  way  for  new 
political  systems. 

152.  In  what  way  has  modern  society  been  benefitted  by  the 
ancient  Romans? — It  has  derived  benefit  from  Roman  litera- 
ture, law, and  arts;  likewise  from  the  Latin  language,  which, 
though  now  a  dead  tongue,  continues  to  be  studied  for  its 
elegance,  and  its  connection  with  modern  languages.  We 
are  likewise  indebted  to  them  for  the  letters  known  as 
Roman  Capitals. 

153.  Mention  soitte   of  the  noted  Roman  writers. — Cicero, 


Croesus,   a   King  in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth.— See  page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg. — See    page   305. 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


287 


Livy,  Sallust,  Caesar,  Tacitus,   Seneca,   Ovid,   Horace,   and 
Virgil. 

154.  Had  the  Ro7nans  a  knowledge  of  physical  science?-^ 
Their  knowledge  of  some  departments  of  science  was  ex- 
ceedingly imperfect.  They  believed  that  the  earth  was  the 
centre  of  the  universe,  and  that  the  sun,  planets,  and  stars 
revolved  around  it;  all  they  knew  of  geography  was  confined 
to  the  countries  stretching  from  India  to  Britain;  of 
geology,  chemistry,  and  some  other  sciences  of  recent 
growth,  they  were,  of  course,  entirely  ignorant;  and  the 
most  learned  Romans— as  well  as  Greeks— clung  to  super- 
stitions connected  with  natural  phenomena,  that  are  now  re- 
jected and  laughed  at  by  all  but  the  most  illiterate. 

155.  What  was  the  practice  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as 
regards  education  f— It  was  to  confine  instruction  to  the  higher 
classes.  As  to  educating  the  humbler  orders— the  bulk  of 
whom  were  held  as  slaves  and  treated  little  better  than 
cattle— and  thereby  improving  the  general  tone  of  society, 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  had  not  the  most  distant  idea. 
There  was  thus  nothing  expansive  in  the  ancient  civilization  ; 
it  was  a  thing  of  classes  and  castes— a  mere  superficial  gloss— 
and,  unsupported,  it  sunk  and  perished 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

1.  What  is  Medieval  History  /—It  is  the  history  of  the  in- 
terval between  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  476,  and  the 
revival  of  learning  about  1450.  From  being  between  the  close 
of  one  species  of  civilization  and  the  rise  of  another,  this  in- 
terval of  nearly  a  thousand  years  is  usually  styled  the 
"Middle  Ages." 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  ''Dark  Ages  f— The  "  Dark  Ages" 
were  the  early  portion  of  the  middle  ages,  when  learning  was 
nearly  extinct,  and  the  light  of  Christianity  had  not  yet  been 
generally  diffused. 

3.  What  was  the  Byzantine  empire?— It  was  the  eastern 


O 


^ 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769 ;    Died,  1821  — See  page  411. 


i 


288 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY, 


division  of  the  ancient  Roman  empire,  called  Byzantine, 
from  Byzantium,  the  former  name  of  Constantinople,  and 
which  dates  from  395  a.  d.,  when  Theodosius  the  Great  died, 
and  left  two  sons,  Honorius  and  Arcadius,  the  former  of  whom 
became  Emperor  of  the  West,  and  the  latter  the  first  distinc- 
tive Emperor  of  the  East. 

4.  How  long  did  the  Byzantine  empire  continue  to  exist  ? — It 
lasted  under  various  changes  of  dynasty  till  1453,  and  em- 
braced the  reigns  of  about  ninety  emperors,  few  of  whom 
were  of  any  note. 

5.  What  was  the  character  of  the  Byzantine  empire  ? — It  was, 
of  a  Greek  and  Asiatic  character,  and  the  Greek  language 
was  spoken. 

6.  Did  the  Byzantine  empire  offer  a  refuge  for  learning  on  the 
fall  of  the  Western  empire? — It  did  so  to  some  extent,  and  at 
Constantinople  the  arts  and  literature  were  for  a  time  culti- 
vated ;  but  during  nearly  its  whole  history  this  fragmentary 
portion  of  the  old  Roman  empire  was  badly  governed,  and  has 
left  little  that  commands  respect. 

7.  Who  was  Theodoric  the  Great? — He  was  a  king  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  who,  actuated  by  ambition,  invaded  Italy,  con- 
quered the  Visigoths,  and  established  a  new  kingdom,  493. 
Theodoric  ruled  with  much  wisdom,  but  at  his  death,  526, 
Italy  lapsed  into  a  state  of  anarchy,  and  an  effort  was  made 
by  Justinian  to  conquer  it. 

8.  Who  was  Justinian? — He  was  one  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
perors who  reigned  at  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  and 
is  famed  tor  his  sagacious  policy,  more  particularly  for  his 
code  of  Roman  law,  which  he  caused  to  be  digested  in  several 
books,  known  as  the  Pandects  and  Institutes  of  Jtistinian, 
By  Justinian  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  was  built  at  Constan- 
tinople, which  he  decorated  with  oriental  magnificence, 
537. 

9.  Whowas  Belisar^us?—YiQ^ff^^i^  an  eminent  general  em- 
ployed by  Justinian  in  wars  against  the  Vandals  in  Africa, 
and  also  against  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy.  Partly  by  the  gen^ 
eralship  of  Belisarius  Italy  was  attached  to  the  empire  of 
Justinian,  but  for  want  of  reinforcements  he  gave  up  »his 


'•  Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


W 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY.  289 

command.       Unjustly    accused    of    conspiracy    Belisarius    was 
imprisoned,  but  was  soon  restored  to  liberty  ;   he  died  564. 

10.  Was  Belisarius  deprived  of  sight  f — Such  cruelty  is  said 
by  some  writers  to  have  been  perpetrated,  and  it  is  added 
that  Belisarius  was  so  impoverished  as  to  ask  alms  as  a  blind 
mendicant ;  but  these  circumstances  rest  on  no  credible  au- 
thority, and  are  believed  to  be  the  fictions  of  novelists. 

11.  Who  was  the  Exarch  of  Ravenna? — While  Italy  re- 
mained a  dependency  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  it  was  gov- 
erned by  a  species  of  viceroy  deputed  from  Constantinople, 
who  resided  at  Ravenna,  and  was  called  an  Exarch. 

12.  Who  were  the  Lombards  f — They  were  a  German  nation 
settled  on  the  Danube,  who  invaded  and  took  possession  of 
the  north  of  Italy,  making  Pavia  their  capital,  568.  From 
them  is  derived  the  name  Lombardy.  The  Lombard  king- 
dom was  originally  composed  of  a  number  of  dukedoms — 
the  dukes  paying  sometimes  area],  and  sometimes  a  nominal 
homage  to  "  a  king." 

13.  Who  were  the  Franks? — They  were  a  confederation  of 
tribes  in  Northern  Germany,  who,  in  the  course  of  the  fifth 
century,  invaded  Gaul,  and  founded  the  kingdom  which  from 
their  name  became  afterwards  known  as  France. 

14.  What  was  the  condition  of  Gaul  at  that  time? — It  was 
occupied  by  the  Gauls,  a  Celtic  race,  whose  habits  had  been 
considerably  modified  by  long  intercourse  with  the  Romans. 
The  country  being  overrun  and  subjugated  by  the  Franks, 
there  grew  up  a  language  composed  of  Celtic,  German,  and 
Latin  elements,  which  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  modern 
French. 

15.  Who  was  Clovis? — He  was  the  first  king  of  the  Franks 
in  Gaul ;  at  his  death,  his  dominions  were  divided,  but  were 
reunited  under  Clotaire,  558,  from  which  time  the  kingdom 
increased  in  dignity  and  importance. 

16.  What  was  the  Merovingian  dynasty? — It  was  the  first 
race  of  Frankish  kings,  and  was  called  Merovingian,  from 
Merow'g,  grandfather  of  Clovis.  This  dynasty  ruled  from 
486  till  752. 

17.  Had  Christianity  spread  ffver  Gaul? — Yes ;  the  knowledge 

13 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


& 

B 

JO 
et 
O 


2QO  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


and  practice  of  Christianity  had  spread  over  the  greater  part 
of  Europe  previous  to  the  sixth  century,  everywhere  expel- 
hng  paganism,  and  greatly  contributing  to  social  melioration. 

18.  What  at  this  time  was  the  condition  of  the  Church  ? — 
The  church  had  at  this  time  grown  to  be  a  great  spiritual 
hierarchy,  which,  through  pious  gifts,  had  been  invested  with 
lands  and  other  kinds  of  endowment  for  its  support. 

19.  What  was  the  Latin  Church  ? — It  was  that  branch  of 
the  church  presided  over  by  the  bishop  of  Rome,  which  in 
its  services  employed  the  Latin  language,  and  in  this  and 
some  other  respects  differed  from  the  Greek  Church  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

20.  What  was  the  bishop  of  Roine  usually  styled? — He  was 
called  the  Pope,  a  term  signifying  Papa,  or  Father.  When 
the  Roman  emperors  dropped  the  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus, 
the  bishop  of  Rome  assumed  it  as  expressive  of  his  claim  to 
supreme  ecclesiastical  authority. 

21.  What  were  Councils  of  the  Church? — They  were  assem- 
blies of  clergy  held  from  time  to  time  to  settle  points  of 
doctrine,  to  determine  what  scriptural  books  were  canonical 
and  trustworthy,  and  to  organize  and  discipline  various  mat- 
ters of  ecclesiastical  government. 

22.  When  and  where  did  these  Councils  take  place? — There 
were  numerous  councils,  provincial  and  general,  in  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  centuries.  The  most  famous  of  the  general 
councils  was  that  convened  by  Constantine  at  Nicasa,  in 
Asia  Minor,  325.  At  this  council,  which  was  attended  by  318 
bishops,  the  Nicene  Creed  was  authorized  as  a  confession  of 
faith. 

23.  What  were  Monasteries  f— They  were  establishments  for 
religious  retirement.  At  first,  the  monks,  or  inmates  of 
monasteries,  were  generally  laymen,  but  in  time  they  were 

§  I        admitted  to  priests'  orders.     They  were  governed  by  partic- 
S  ular  rules  under  a  superior. 

^  I  24.   Who  was  St.  Benedict  ?—Y{q  was  an  Italian  of  the  sixth 

century,  who  organized  the  monastic  system  of  the  West. 
The  monks  of  his  order,  or  Benedictine  monks,  became  noted 
for  their  prosecution  of  learning,  and  also  for  their  great  in' 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


"     yiO/Pis>r.r'.s  .isv 


CATHEDRAL   OF   THE   ASSUMPTION,    AT    MOSCOW,    RUSSIA. - 


291. 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Gods. — See  page    248. 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY.  29I 

dustry  in  writing  copies  of  books  to  be  employed  in  the  reli- 
gious services. 

25.  Who  were  the  ''regular  clergy f — 
They  were  the  clergy  who  lived  under  reg- 
ular rules  in  monasteries,  while  bishops 
and  parish  priests  were  styled  "secular 
clergy,"  from  living  in  the  world. 

26.  What  were  Abbeys  ? — They  were  great 
monastic  establishments,  under  the  govern- 
ment of  an  abbot. 

27.  What  were  Cathedrals? — A  cathedral 
was  the  chief  church  in  the  diocese  of  a 
bishop.  The  word  cathedral  is  derived 
from  cathedra,vf\{\z\i  in  Greek  signifies  a  seat  J^^^e^ictine  Monk, 
or  bench.  The  term  had  its  origin  in  the  practice  of  bishops 
occupying  a  higher  seat  in  the  assembly  of  clergy  of  their 
diocese.  The  building  of  cathedrals  and  abbeys  was  a  work 
of  piety  and  munificence  in  the  middle  ages,  from  about  the 
sixth  to  the  thirteenth  century ;  those  of  latest  erection  were 
structures  of  great  architectural  elegance. 

28.  What  was  the  first  great  division  in  the  Church  ? — It  was 
the  separation  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches  ;  after  vari- 
ous dissensions  about  points  of  doctrine  and  other  matters, 
and  after  frequent  attempts  at  reconciliation,  extending  over 
several  centuries,  a  final  rupture  took  place  at  the  fall  of  the 
Byzantine  empire,  1453. 

29.  Who  were  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  ? — They  were 
the  bishops  who  presided  over  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Church 
at  Constantinople,  under  the  protection  of  the  Byzantine 
emperors. 

30.  Who  were  the  Iconoclasts? — The  Greek  term  Iconoclasts 
signifies  Image-breakers,  and  was  applied  to  a  party  of  religi- 
ous enthusiasts,  who  at  the  instigation  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
peror, Leo  Isaurus,  726,  destroyed  the  images  in  the  churches 
at  Constantinople,  from  which  the  frenzy  spread  to  Italy, 
Where,  however,  it  was  resisted  by  the  Latin  Church  and  the 
people  generally. 

31.  How  did  the  pope  encounter  the  Greek  Iconoclasts? — He 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


at 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered   12.— See  page   242. 


292 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


called  in  the  aid  of  Astolphus,  king  of  the  Lombards,  who 
expelled  the  Exarchs  of  Ravenna  ;  but  as  Astolphus  tried  to 
keep  Central  Italy,  the  pope  invited  the  assistance  of  Pepin, 
king  of  the  Franks.  Pepin  compelled  the  Lombards  to  cede 
the  territory  they  had  acquired,  and  then  presented  it  to  the 
pope  as  a  temporal  sovereignty,  756. 

32.  What  very  remarkable  event  occurred  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury?— The  origin  and  spread  of  Mohammedanism,  or  relig- 
ion of  Mohammed  ;  this  religion  was  properly  called  Islam, 
such  being  an  Arabic  word  signifying  "entire  submission  to 
the  will  of  God."  From  Islam,  likewise,  comes  Moslem  and 
Mussulman,  applied  to  the  professors  of  the  religion  of 
Mohammed. 

33.  Who  was  Mohammed? — He  was  an  Arabian,  born  at 
Mecca  about  570.  Able  and  ingenious,  though  not  learned, 
he  devised  a  religion  of  pure  theism,  or  behef  in  one  God, 
whose  prophet  he  declared  himself  to  be.  Encountering 
persecution,  he  fled  to  Medina,  i6th  July,  622,  and  this  date  of 
his  flight,  called  Hejira,  has  ever  since  been  recognized  as 
the  commencement  of  the  Mohammedan  era. 

34.  Who  were  the  Califs? — They  were  the  successors  of 
Mohammed,  who,  uniting  religious  zeal  with  temporal 
power  as  sovereigns  in  Arabia,  extended  Mohammedanism 
by  a  series  of  extraordinary  conquests,  beginning  with  Mes- 
opotamia and  Syria,  which  were  lost  to  the  Byzantine  empire. 

35.  Who  was  Omar  ? — He  was  the  second  calif,  who  added 
Palestine,  Egypt,  and  the  whole  north  of  Africa  to  the  Mo- 
hammedan conquests.  Receiving  the  submission  of  Jerusa- 
lem, 637,  he  caused  a  mosque,  which  bears  his  name,  to  be 
built  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Solomon. 

36.  When  Egypt  fell  into  the  possession  of  Ojnar,  did  he  des- 
troy the  great  library  at  Alexandria  ? — No  ;  a  story  to  that 
effect,  long  current,  is  found  to  be  incorrect.  The  famous 
library  of  Alexandria  had  been  previously  destroyed,  and  as 
a  seat  of  learning  that  city  had  declined  by  the  rising  impor- 
tance of  Constantinople  about  the  fourth  century. 

37.  When  did  the  Mohammedans  establish  themselves  in  Spain  ? 
^-In  711,  a  branch  of  the  Arabs,  under  the  name  of  Saracens 


The   Bastilo  was  a   Prison  in   Paris ;  Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


293 


—a  word  signifying  "  eastern  people" — conquered  a  portion 
of  Spain,  and  there  founded  a  power,  known  in  history  as  the 
"  kingdom  of  the  Moors." 

38.  Who  was  Charles  Martel? — He  was  chief  officer  in  the 
household  of  the  Prankish  king,  and  virtually  ruler  of  the 
Franks.  He  defeated  the  Saracens  in  a  great  battle,  between 
Tours  and  Poictiers,  732,  and  arrested  forever  the  progress 
of  Mohammedanism  in  Western  Europe. 

39.  Who  were  the  Abba^ides  ? — They  were  an  Arabian  dy- 
nasty, who  ruled  as  califs  of  Bagdad,  749 — 1258;  devoting 
themselves  to  the  cultivation  of  learning  and  the  arts,  there 
ensued  in  the  eighth  century  an  extraordinary  intellectual 
outburst  among  Arabians  in  Asia,  and  Moors  in  Spain,  of 
which  there  survive  various  memorials. 

40.  Mention  one  or  two  things  for  which  we  are  indebted  to 
the  Arabians. — Modern  Europe  is  indebted  to  them  for  the 
common  numerals  or  figures — hence  called  Arabic  numerals— 
which  have  superseded  the  clumsy  notation  of  the  Romans, 
and  greatly  facilitated  arithmetic ;  to  them  is  also  due  our 
knowledge  of  algebra,  or  the  system  of  computation  by  sym- 
bolic letters  and  marks. 

41.  What  was  the  Carlovingian  dynasty  ? — It  was  the  race 
of  kings  in  France  commencing  with  Pepin,  a  son  of  Charles 
Martel ;  and  hence  the  dynasty  was  called  Carlovingian ;  it 
lasted  from  752  till  986. 

42.  Who  was  Charlemagne  ? — He  was  one  of  the  sons  of 
Pepin,  king  of  the  Franks,  and  ultimately  inherited  the  whole 
of  his  dominions,  which  he  vastly  extended  by  conquests  in 
Germany,  Italy,  and  other  countries.  On  account  of  his 
power,  learning,  and  various  high  qualities,  he  is  considered 
the  most  illustrious  monarch  of  the  middle  ages. 

43.  What  was  Charleinagne  styled f— He  was  at  first  styled 
king  of  the  Franks,  to  which  title  was  afterwards  added  em- 
peror of  the  Romans. 

44.  How  did  Charlemagne  become  Emperor  of  the  Roma7ts  ?— 
Having  in  the  year  800  completed  his  conquests  in  Italy, 
he  secured  the  popes  m  their  possessions,  and  even  added  to 
them  by  new  gifts  of  territory.     Grateful  for  his  services  to 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C.— See  page  273. 


204  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

the  church,  Pope  Leo  III.,  amidst  general  acclamation,  put  a 
crown  on  the  head  of  Charlemagne  on  Christmas-day,  while 
the  people  were  worshipping  in  St.  Peter's  and  saluted 
him  as  "  Carolus  I.,  Caesar  Augustus,"  or  Emperor  of  the 
Romans. 

45.  Did  this  ceremony  impart  any  power  to  Ckarie7nagne  ? — 
No  ;  the  title  of  Caesar  or  emperor  only  added  lustre  to  his 
nam.e,  as  in  a  sense  reviving  the  greatness  of  the  ancient 
empire.  Though  but  an  empty  name,  the  title  of  emperor 
or  kaiser  (German  for  Caesar),  was  borne  by  the  sovereigns 
of  the  so-called  "  German  Empire"  until  recent  times  ;  till 
this  day,  the  crown  of  Charlemagne  is  preserved  at 
Vienna. 

46.  Who  was  Alcuin  ? — He  was  a  learned  ecclesiastic,  an 
Englishman  by  birth  ;  he  resided  at  the  court  of  Charlemagne, 
who  from  him  acquired  a  knowledge  of  grammar,  rhetoric, 
music,  astronomy,  and  natural  history,  also  the  art  of  writ- 
ing. Alcuin  is  particularly  noted  for  having  written  an  entire 
copy  of  the  Scriptures  with  the  pen,  a  labor  which  occupied 
many  years.  This  greatly-prized  copy  of  the  Bible  is  now  in 
the  British  Museum. 

47.  When  did  Charlemagne  die? — He  died  814,  and  was  en- 
tombed in  a  vault  of  the  cathedral  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  His 
body,  dressed  in  robes  of  state,  was  seated  in  a  marble  chair, 
with  the  sceptre  in  his  hand,  the  gospel  on  his  knee,  a  piece 
of  the  holy  cross  on  his  head,  and  a  pilgrim's  scrip  attached 
to  his  girdle.  After  about  350  years,  his  bones  were  gath- 
ered up,  and  enshrined  in  a  casket  of  gold  and  silver. 

48.  Who  was  Louis  le  DSonnairef — He  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Charlemagne.  Being  unable  to  govern  the  vast 
empire,  he  partitioned  it  among  his  three  sons,  Lothaire, 
Louis,  and  Charles.  This  last,  styled  Charles  the  Bald,  re- 
ceived the  kingdom  of  the  Franks,  which  now  for  the  first 
time  was  called  France,  843. 

49.  Did  this  division  terminate  the  dismemberfnent  of  Charle- 
mag7ie' s great  empire? — No  ;  dissensions  broke  out  among  lo- 
cal dukes  and  chieftains,  and  in  a  short  time  the  greater  part 
of  the  empire  was  shattered  into  independent  fragments.    To 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793     to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815. — See   page    368. 


03 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY.  295 

this  disruption  is  chiefly  to  be  traced  the  origin  of  many  of 
the  petty  kingdoms  and  duchies  in  modern  Germany. 

50.  What  was  the  Capetian  dynasty  ? — It  was  the  third  dy- 
nasty of  Prankish  or  French  kings,  and  began  in  987  with 
Hugh  Capet,  Count  of  Paris,  one  of  the  great  territorial 
barons  of  the  time.  Capet's  seizure  of  the  crown,  in  preju- 
dice of  Charles  of  Lorraine,  the  nearest  heir  of  the  Carlo- 
vingian  dynasty,  was  in  reality  a  usurpation. 

51.  What  was  the  Feudal  System? — It  was  a  method  by 
which  sovereigns  made  gifts  of  lands  to  their  leading  captains 
{duces,  "  dukes")  and  other  adherents,  on  condition  that  they 
and  their  heirs  should  render  military  service  to  the  crown. 
It  began  about  the  ninth  century,  and  spread  over  the 
greater  part  of  Western  Europe,  including  the  British  Islands. 

52.  What  was  a  Fief? — It  was  a  piece  of  land  or  domain 
held  by  feudal  tenure,  and  those  who  held  it  were  styled 
vassals.  As  regards  the  greater  vassals,  they  exercised  al- 
most independent  authority  within  their  fiefs,  but  rendered 
at  least  a  nominal  homage  to  the  king  as  their  suzerain,  and 
were  bound  to  attend  state  ceremonials. 

53.  Give  some  examples  of  large  fief-holders. — France  offers 
some  remarkable  examples.  In  the  middle  ages  that  country 
comprehended  Provence,  Navarre,  Burgundy,  Lorraine,  and 
various  other  great  fiefs,  the  rulers  of  which  owed  allegiance 
to  the  "  king  of  France"  as  suzerain.  The  extinction  of  these 
fiefs,  and  the  consolidation  of  France,  are  events  of  modern 
times. 

54.  Had  the  great  fief-holders  subordinate  vassals? — Yes  ;  the 
system  of  holding  lands  on  condition  of  rendering  military 
service  went  down  and  down  from  one  to  another,  till  at 
length  society  consisted  of  a  series  of  dependent  vassals,  all 
connected  with  each  other,  and  holding  from  the  crown  as  a 
central  power. 

55.  How  were  wars  conducted  under  the  feudal-  system  ? — By 
the  sovereign  summoning  his  vassals,  who  were  generally  the 
chief  nobles  of  the  kingdom,  to  appear  in  the  field  at  a  cer- 
tain time,  with  a  certain  military  retinue ;  and  these  nobles 
calling  in  the  same  same  way  on  the  lesser  proprietors,  they 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was    Born    1564 ;      Died    1616.  —  See    page     143. 


296 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


in  turn  summoned  the  farmers  and  laborers,  by  which  means 
a  great  army  was  raised  at  scarcely  any  expense  to  the  crown. 

56.  What  were  the  disadvantages  of  the  feudal  system  ? — It 
raised  up  a  body  of  powerful  feudal  chiefs,  who  built  fortified 
castles,  and  besides  levying  war  against  each  other,  and  op- 
pressing their  unfortunate  dependents,  often  held  the  crown 
at  defiance. 

57.  Why  did  the  sovereigns  not  keep  the  feudal  chiefs  in  proper 
subjection  ? — They  were  not  always  able  to  do  so ;  they 
had  no  standing  army,  nor  indeed  any  large  revenue  where- 
with to  hire  soldiers.  Much  of  the  history  of  the  middle 
ages  consists  of  unseemly  contests  between  kings  and  their 
great  vassals. 

58.  What  were  Free  Cities  ? — They  were  certain  large  towns 
in  various  countries  in  Europe  which  possessed  the  privilege 
of  self-government  and  of  regulating  their  own  affairs,  yield- 
ing allegiance  only  to  the  sovereign 

59.  Were  these  privileges  of  ancient  date? — Yes;  in  some  in- 
stances they  dated  from  the  time  of  the  ancient  Romans; 
but  in  the  greater  number  of  cases,  the  privileges  were  con- 
ferred by  the  emperors  after  the  introduction  of  the  feudal 
system,  in  order  to  rear  up  communities  who  would  aid  them 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  greater  vassals. 

60.  Mention  some  of  the  old  and  important  free  cities  in  Con- 
tifiental  Europe.— Y^mce,  Genoa,  Florence,  Frankfort,  Co- 
logne, Nurnburg,  Liege,  Hamburg,  and  Lubeck. 

61.  What  were  Guilds  f—They  were  corporations  or  com- 
munities of  traders  in  the  free  cities  and  towns,  membership 
in  which  took  place  by  apprenticeship  and  otherwise.  Each 
guild  exercised  a  monopoly  in  its  own  particular  craft,  in 
return  for  which  privilege  the  members  usually  rendered 
military  service  as  freemen  in  defending  the  towns  from  at- 
tack. Free  towns  of  this  kind  in  England  were  called  Bor- 
oughs. 

62.  Who  was  Gregory  I. .?— He  was  pope  at  the  end  of  the 
sixth  century,  and  was  designated  "the  Great"  on  account 
of  his  great  ability  and  many  estimable  qualities.  He  re- 
formed and   organized  the  ritual  of  the  church,  into  which 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed   in   1588.— See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long. — See    page    302. 


O 


MED  IE  VAL  HIS  TOR  Y,  297 

he  introduced  certain  choral  melodies  known  as  the  "  Gre- 
gorian Chant ;"  he  also  extirpated  many  ecclesiastical  abuses  ; 
and  among  his  valuable  services  to  religion  was  that  of  de- 
puting Augustine  to  bring  Britain  within  the  pale  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

63.  What  was  the  influence  of  the  church  in  the  middle  ages  f 
— The  church  exercised  great  iniauence  in  assuaging  discords 
among  contending  sovereigns  and  chiefs,  and  also  compre- 
hended almost  the  whole  learning  of  the  period. 

64.  In  what  way  was  the  church  prevalent  ? — It  was  a  great 
confederation  of  ecclesiastics  of  every  country,  distributed 
over  Europe,  all  engaged  in  the  same  intellectual  and  spir- 
itual labors,  all  using  the  Latin  tongue  for  learned  purposes, 
and  everywhere  spreading  a    knowledge  of  letters. 

65.  What  were  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land? — In  the  mid- 
dle ages  it  was  customary  for  pious  persons  to  make  pilgrim- 
ages to  Jerusalem  in  order  to  worship  at  shrines  near  the 
spot  where  Christ  had  been  crucified.  Pilgrimages  were  of- 
ten undertaken  as  a  kind  of  expiatory  sacrifice  for  the  com- 
mission of  heinous  crimes. 

66.  What  was  the  costume  of  pilgrijns  ? — They  were  dressed 
in  a  loose  frock  fastened  by  a  girdle,  from  which  was  sus- 
pended a  small  bag  or  scrip  for  provisions  ;  they  carried  a 
staff,  generally  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  on  the  front  of 
their  hat  they  bore  a  scallop  shell  as  a  token  of  their  sanctity 
— the  shell  being  perhaps  symbolic  of  a  maritime  journey. 

6j.  Were  Christian  pilgrims  tolerated  at  Jerusalem  after  the 
conquest  of  Palestine  by  the  califs? — Yes  ;  they  were  allowed 
to  come  and  go  on  paying  a  small  tribute,  until  the  country 
fell  under  the  power  of  the  Turks. 

68.  Who  were  the  Turks  ? — They  were  a  Tartar  people  pro- 
fessing the  Mohammedan  faith,  who  seized  Palestine  and 
adjacent  regions  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  from  their 
intolerant  religious  notions  rendered  Christian -pilgrimages 
impracticable. 

69.  What  were  the  Crusades  ? — They  were  expeditions  un- 
dertaken by  several  Christian  powers  in  Europe  to  rescue 
Palestine  from  the  Turks,  and  make  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators.— See    page    278. 


04 


298 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


Places  available.  Each  warrior  wore  a  red  cross  on  the 
shoulder ;  hence  the  French  term  croisade,  signifying  crossed, 
and  from  croisade  is  derived  the  English  word  crusade. 

70.  Who  was  Peter  the  Hermit  ? — He  was  a  religious  enthu- 
siast in  France,  who  by  his  preaching  stimulated  the  first 
crusade,  which  took  place  in  1096. 

71.  Who  was  Godfrey  of  Bouillon? — He  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  first  crusade,  which  succeeded  in  rescuing 
Palestine  from  the  Turks,  when  he  was  constituted  king  of 
Jerusalem. 

72.  Who  were  the  Knights  Templar? — They  were  a  religious 
military  order,  instituted  to  defend  the  holy  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem, and  along  with  the  Knights  Hospitallers  of  St.  John, 
rendered  important  services  during  the  crusade 

73.  How  many  crusades  were  there  altogether  ? — There  were 
S  I        seven,  extending  from    1096  till    about  1290;    but   some  of 

them  were  of  a  very  imperfect  kind,  and  the  whole  were  at- 
tended with  a  great  sacrifice  of  life. 

74.  Who  was  Saladin? — He  was  a  young  and  able  Saracen 
chief,  who  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  Mohammedans,  invaded 

Palestine,  and  compelled  Jerusalem  to 
surrender,  1187.  The  Christian  powers 
never  regained  possession  of  the  coun- 
try, and  matters  finally  settled  down  on 
the  old  principle  of  allowing  pilgrimages 
to  the  Holy  Places — a  privilege  which 
subsists  till  the  present  day. 

75.    Were  the  crusades  of  any  value  to 
Europe ?— Though  totally  failing  in  their 
object,  they  did  good  service  by  stimu^ 
Knight  Templar.        lating   inquiry,    making   people    of    one 
country  acquainted  with  those  of  other  countries,  and  intro- 
ducing a  knowledge  of  arts  formerly  unknown.     They  also 
gave  a  stimulus  to  chivalry. 

76.  What  was  Cnivalry? — Chivalry  is  a  term  derived  from 
the  French  chevalier,  a  knight— the  original  of  the  word 
being  cheual,  a  horse,  as  knights  fought  on  horseback.  Chiv- 
alry or  knighthood  arose  in  feudal  times,  when  it  became  a 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779.— See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133. 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


299 


mark  of  dignity  to  show  valor  and  dexterity  in  arms ;  a  true 
knight  was  expected  to  be  not  only  brave  but  gentle,  and  a 
ready  means  of  succor  to  all  in  distress. 

']'].  What  was  the  influence  of  chivalry  on  the  condition  of 
women? — The  practice  of  high-toned  chivalry  greatly  tended 
to  give  women  that  honorable  status  and  claim  on  delicate 
and  proper  attention,  which  they  enjoy  in  all  modern  nations 
professing  Christianity. 

78.  What  were  Heralds? — They  were  state  officials  of  great 
antiquity,  for  they  can  be  traced  in  the  early  history  of 
Greece  and  Rome.  Throughout  the  middle  ages,  but  more 
particularly  in  feudal  times,  they  acted  as  diplomatists  be- 
tween sovereigns  in  matters  of  peace  and  war, 

79.  What  were  Tournaments? — They  were  real  or  sham 
fights  of  knights  on  horseback,  conducted  under  certain  regu- 
lations, at  which  heralds  attended  to  regulate  distinctions  in 
rank  and  proclaim  the  names  of  victors.  These  amusements, 
which  were  ingreatfavorin  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centu- 
ries, were  known  ^s  passages-at-arms. 

80.  What  were  the  general  manners  and  habits  of  thought  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  middle  ages? — Though  modified  by  chiv- 
alry and  restrained  by  the  church,  the  manners  were  rude  ; 
there  was  little  safety  for  life  and  property;  scarcely  any 
but  ecclesiastics  could  read  or  write;  serfdom  prevailed; 
there  was  a  universal  belief  in  fairies,  witchcraft,  and  demon- 
ology;  famines  and  plagues  were  of  frequent  occurrence; 
and  so  feebly  was  justice  administered,  that  in  some  con- 
tinental countries  secret  tribunals  sprung  up  as  a  means  of 
redressing  private  grievances. 

81.  Explain  the  nature  of  the  Secret  Tribunals. — They  orig- 
inated in  Germany  about  the  twelfth  century,  and  were  there 
called  Vehmgerichte,  or  excommunicatory  courts.  Posses- 
sing no  legal  authority,  they  assembled  in  secret  places 
during  the  night,  and  thither  persons  were  brought  on  whom 
it  was  wished  to  execute  vengeance.  These  courts  inspired 
great  terror  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth,  and  were  not 
entirely  extinguished  till  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

82.  What  was  Scandinavia? — It   was   a  northern   region, 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65. 


1 


300 


MEDIE  VAL  HISTOR  V, 


which  now  comprehends  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 
The  Scandinavians  were  noted  for  their  maritime  skill,  and 
under  the  designation  of  Vikings,  long  carried  on  piratical 
expeditions  against  the  more  southern  nations  of  Western 
Europe. 

83.  What  was  the  religion  of  the  Scandinavians? — Until 
about  the  year  1000,  when  they  embraced  Christianity,  the 
Scandinavians  believed  in  a  number  of  fabulous  gods,  the 
chief  of  whom  was  Odin  or  Woden.  Heroes,  at  their  death, 
were  to  be  received  into  Valhalla,  the  mansion  of  the  gods 
and  the  warlike  paradise  of  their  wild  mythology. 

84.  Who  were  the  Normans  ? — Normans,  or  Norsemen,  was 
a  name  ordinarily  given  to  the  Scandinavians  ;  under  this 
appellation  they  made  some  formidable  descents  on  France 
in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries.  On  one  occasion,  in  912, 
they  could  only  be  pacified  by  Charles  the  Simple  ceding  to 
them  a  portion  of  his  kingdom,  which  from  them  was  after- 
wards called  Normandy. 

85.  Who  was  Rollo? — He  was  the  chief  of  the  Normans 
at  the  time  they  settled  in  France.  Embracing  Christianity, 
he  was  baptized  under  the  name  of  Robert,  and  received  the 
daughter  of  the  king  in  marriage ;  subsequently  he  became 
the  first  Duke  of  Normandy,  and,  as  such,  a  vassal  of  the 
French  sovereign. 

86.  When  was  Paper  invented? — It  is  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented about  the  year  1000,  but  came  slowly  into  use.  The 
Chinese  are  said  to  have  been  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
making  paper  in  very  remote  times. 

87.  When  was  Gunpowder  invented? — It  is  generally  thought 
to  have  been  invented  by  Roger  Bacon,  an  English  monk, 
about  1270;  but  of  this  fact  there  is  no  certainty.  Gun- 
powder was  first  used  by  the  English  at  the  battle  of  Cressy 
in  1346.  The  introduction  of  artillery  in  time  superseded 
the  use  of  bows  and  arrows  in  warfare,  and  led  also  to  the 
abandonment  of  plate  armor. 

88.  Who  was  Marco  Polo  ? — He  was  a  Venetian  who  trav- 
elled in  the  Far  East,  and  invented  or  first  made  known  in 
Europe,  the  mariners'  compass  in   1260.     The  use  of  this 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47. 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY.  ^01 

instrument  greatly  faciitated  maritime  enterprise,  for  hitherto 
navigators  dared  scarcely  to  sail  their  ships  out  of  sight  of 
land. 

89.  Who  were  the  Slavonians  ? — They  were  the  progenitors 
of  the  Russians,  Poles,  Bohemians,  and  some  other  peoples 
in  the  east  and  north  of  Europe,  who  differ  in  language  from 
nations  of  the  Teutonic  or  German  type.  Arising  from  dif- 
ferent historic  circumstances,  some  nations  of  Slavonic  origin 
belong  to  the  Greek,  while  others  are  members  of  the  Latin 
Church. 

90.  Who  were  the  Troubadours? — They  were  poets  and 
singers,  who  flourished  from  the  tenth  till  the  thirteenth 
century.  They  belonged  chiefly  to  Provence,  in  the  south 
of  France.  The  term  troubadour  is  derived  from  the  French 
trouver,  to  find  or  invent. 

91 .  Who  were  the  Minnesingers  ? — They  were  poets  and  sing- 
ers in  Germany  in  the  twelfth  century  ;  they  were  generally 
knights  or  men  of  noble  descent,  and,  like  the  troubadours, 
sung  ballads  of  their  own  composition  about  love,  friendship, 
religion,  chivalry,  and  the  beauties  of  nature,  at  the  courts 
of  kings  and  feudal  chiefs.  The  term  minnesinger  is  from 
the  old  German  word  minne,  denoting  love. 

92.  Who  were  the  Minstrels  .?— They  were  singers  and  per- 
formers on  instruments,  who  wandered  about  like  the  trou- 
badours and  minnesingers,  but  were  of  an  inferior  social  rank 
and  usually  sung  the  verses  of  others.  The  term  minstrel, 
from  the  French  menestrier,  to  amuse,  was  introduced  by  the 
Normans  into  England. 

93.  Who  were  the  Scalds  /—They  were  the  minstrels  and 
chroniclers  of  the  Scandinavians,  and  sung  heroic  ballads 
concerning  the  deeds  of  heroes  and  the  mythology  of  the 
north. 

94.  Who  were  the  Bards  ?— They  were  the  poets  of  the  Cel- 
tic tribes,  who  sang  the  exploits  of  heroes,  and  were  the  re- 
positories of  popular  traditions.  The  bards  continued  to 
flourish  till  comparatively  recent  times  in  Ireland,  Wales,  and 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland. 

95.  How  was  the  intelligence  of  events  communicated  in  the 

13  A 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors.— See    page    243. 


-q2  medieval  history. 

middle  ages  ?— Intelligence  was  communicated  in  a  very  tard^ 
manner,  for  there  was  no  system  of  posts,  no  regular  means 
of  conveyance,  and  no  newspapers,  because  printing  was  not 
invented.  Sometimes  years  elapsed  before  the  people  of 
one  country  knew  what  had  taken  place  in  other  countries. 
The  disseminators  of  ordinary  news  were  wandering  min- 
strels, pilgrims,  traders,  and  mendicants. 

96.  Who  was  Prester  John? — In  the  middle  ages,  when 
many  fanciful  stories  were  told  by  pilgrims  and  travellers 
respecting  distant  countries,  a  belief  was  propagated  that 
there  was  a  Christian  sovereign  in  some  remote  part  of  Asia 
called  Prester  John,  a  name  signifying  John  the  Priest.  It 
is  now  known  that  there  was  no  such  personage. 

97.  When  did  the  Popes  reside  at  Avignon .?— They  resided 
at  Avignon,  the  capital  of  a  district  they  had  acquired,  fiora 
1305  till  1377. 

98.  Who  was  Rienzi? — He  was  a  native  of  Rome,  who,  dur- 
ing the  residence  of  the  popes  at  Avignon,  endeavored  to  re- 
store the  ancient  Roman  republic ;  as  a  popular  demagogue, 
he  excited  great  commotion,  and  attained  to  considerable 
authority ;  he,  however,  lacked  ability,  and  was,  properly 
speaking,  a  political  fanatic.  Rienzi  was  killed  in  a  tumult, 
1354. 

99.  What  is  meant  by  "  Jacquerie  f — The  Jacquerie  were 
bands  of  revolted  peasants  in  France,  who,  in  1358,  headed 
by  one  Jacques  Bonhomme,  went  about  destroying  property. 
When  mobs  of  rural  laborers  commit  acts  of  wanton  mis- 
chief, this  French  phrase  Jacquerie  is  sometimes  applied  to 
them. 

100.  What  was  the  condition  of  China  in  the  middle  ages? — 
It  was  inhabited  by  an  ingenious  race  of  people,  skilled  in  a 
variety  of  arts,  who  traced  their  history  to  a  remote  antiquity. 
They  professed  a  religious  system,  founded  on  the  teach- 
ing of  a  sage  called  Confucius,  who  lived  about  550  b.  c. 

loi .  Who  were  the  Mongols  ? — They  were  a  fierce  and  power- 
ful Asiatic  people,  who  inhabited  Mongolia — a  region  north 
of  the  Great  Wall  of  China. 

102.    What  was  the  Great  Wall  of  China  ? — It  was  a  wall  o( 


Crcesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


P^fvC'iihi'v'iiiiHii 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg. — See    page   305. 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


303 


great  height  and  breadth,  erected  by  the  Chinese  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  their  country,  to  defend  themselves 
against  Calmucks,  Mongols,  and  other  races.  This  wall  was 
long  thought  a  wonder  of  the  world  ;  it  extended  1250  miles 
from  east  to  west. 


103.  Who  was  Genghis  Khan? — He  was  a  Mongol  chief, 
who  made  himself  master  of  a  great  part  of  Tartary,  in  121 1 ; 

g  he  passed  the  great  wall,  and   carried  his   conquests   into 

China.  He  died  1227,  before  the  conquest  of  China  was 
completed  ;  and  from  his  ambition  and  recklessness,  he  is 
reputed  to  have  been  the  means  of  slaying  more  than  five 
millions  of  human  beings.     The  term  khan  signifies  chief. 

104.  Was  China  ftdly  subdued  by  the  Mongols? — Yes;  its 
conquest  was  completed  by  the  immediate  successors  of 
Genghis  ;  they  established  a  Mongol,  or  West  Tartar,  dynasty, 
which  reigned  from  1279  to  1368,  when  they  were  expelled 
by  the  Chinese,  and  the  Ming  native  dynasty  succeeded  ;  but 
in  1644  the  Mantchu  or  East  Tartars  conquered  the  country, 
and  have  ever  since  governed  it. 

105.  What  was  the  conditio7i  of  India  in  the  7niddle  ages? — 
India  or  Hindustan,  was  divided  into  many  petty  states,  and 
occupied  by  an  ancient  people,  known  as  Hindus ;  they  were 
of  simple,  frugal,  and  industrious  habits,  and  adhered  to  the 
Brahmanical  religious  system. 

106.  What  is  the  Brahmanical  religion? — It  consists  mainly 
in  a  belief  of  Brahma,  a  deity  regarded  as  the  creator  of  the 
universe,  with  whom  is  associated  Vishnu,  the  preserver, 
and  Siva,  the  destroyer.  The  religion  includes  many  strange 
usages,  and  also  the  division  of  the  people  into  castes. 

107.  Who  was  Timur  the  Tartar  ?— He  was  an  Asiatic  con- 
queror, related  to  the  family  of  Genghis  Khan.  To  Timur 
was  added  the  term  Lenh,  signiiying  Lame  ;  the  two  words, 
Timur  and  Lenk,  have  been  corrupted  into  Tamerlane,  by 
which  name  Timur  is  best  known.  He  subdued  India  in  1402, 
and,  in  1526,  his  great-grandson,  Baber,  founded  the  Mongol 
dynasty,  which  lasted  until  recent  times. 

I  108.    Who  was  the  great  Mogul  ? — That  was    an   ordinary 

>»         designation  of  the  sovereigns  of  India  of  the  Mongol  dynasty 
Pu 

0) 

A 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821. — See  page  411. 


S 


304 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY, 


They  lived  in  a  style  of  great  magnificence  at  Delhi,  which 
continued  to  be  the  capital  of  India,  until  the  seat  of  royalty 
was  transferred  by  Akbar  to  Agra. 

109.  What  was  the  religion  of  the  Mongols? — It  was  Mo- 
hammedanism, which  by  them  was  introduced  into  India,  but 
never  accepted  by  the  native  Flindus. 

1 10.  Who  was  Buddha  ? — He  was  a  meditative  recluse  in 
India,  who  lived  about  600  years  B.  C,  and  became  the  founder 
of  a  religion  known  as  Buddhism,  which  in  time  spread  over 
Burmah  and  Ceylon,  and  was  largely  embraced  in  China. 

111.  What  is  the  nature  of  Buddhism? — It  is  atheistic,  and 
consists  mainly  of  a  rigorous  system  of  morals.  The  aim  of 
its  professors  is  to  reach  such  a  degree  of  purity  of  life,  as 
will  entitle  them  to  enter  into  Nirvana,  by  which  is  meant 
utter  annihilation  ;  and,  until  this  is  reached,  they  believe 
they  pass  at  death  into  various  individuals  and  animals  in 
succession — this  process  being  what  is  called  the  "  transmigra- 
tion of  souls."  Along  with  these  extraordinary  fancies.  Bud- 
dhism has  the  merit  of  excluding  the  pernicious  system  of 
castes. 

112.  Who  were  the  Gypsies? — They  were  a  body  of  unsettled 
wanderers  who  arrived  in  Germany  and  Italy  about  1414, 
and  spread  themselves  over  Europe.  They  were  thought  to 
come  from  Egypt,  and  were  therefore  in  England  called  ^^Z- 
sies,  and  in  Spain  ^zM«<?.  Their  more  probable  origin  is  now 
believed  to  have  been  India. 

113.  Who  was  Bajazet .?— He  was  sultan  of  the  Turks  at  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  completed  the  conquest 
of  the  Byzantine  territories  as  far  as  Constantinople,  which 
was  saved  rnly  temporarily  from  the  Turkish  power. 

114.  Who  was  Mohammed  II. .?-— He  was  one  of  the  succes- 
sors of  Bajazet,  who  destroyed  the  last  fragments  of  the  By- 
zantine empire,  and  captured  Constantinople,  May  29,  1453, 
since  which  time  that  city  has  formed  the  capital  of  the 
Turkish  empire— its  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia  having  been 
transformed  into  a  Mohammedan  mosque. 

115.  When  were  the  Moors  driven  out  of  Spain? — After  a 
sanguinary  war  of  ten  years,  the  chivalry  of  Spain  captured 


"  Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult    Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY.  305 

Granada,  and  the  Moors  were  expelled  from  the  country, 
1492.  From  this  time,  with  an  intermission,  the  peninsula 
has  been  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

116.  What  was  the  Alhambra  ? — It  was  the  fortress  of  the 
Moors  in  Granada,  and  was  noted  for  its  magnificence.  The 
Alhambra  is  preserved  as  an  architectural  curiosity. 

117.  What  were  the  wars  of  the  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines  ?— 
They  were  bitter  contests  between  the  civil  and  spiritual 
powers  which  began  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  extended 
over  300  years,  in  Italy.  The  wars  took  their  name  from 
two  families,  the  Guelfs  and  the  Ghibellines,  who  adopted 
different  sides.  The  party  of  the  Ghibellines  contended  for 
the  supremacy  of  the  German  emperors  in  opposition  to  the 
pretensions  of  the  pope,  and  to  the  claims  of  the  free  cities  to 
independence. 

118.  When  were  Universities  instituted? — The  first  was  that 
of  Paris,  about  1200,  from  which  time,  till  about  1450,  univer- 
sities were  established  in  England,  Scotland,  Italy,  Germany, 
and  other  countries,  everywhere  extending  the  boundaries 
of  knowledge. 

119.  When  were  bills  of  exchange  invented? — They  were  in- 
vented and  brought  into  use  by  the  Jews  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  were  first  employed  in  England  in  1307.  By  this 
ingenious  and  meritorious  invention,  money  could  be  made 
payable  in  distant  countries  without  transmitting  coin  ;  by 
which  foreign  trade  was  greatly  facilitated. 

120.  Who  were  the  Medici? — They 
were  a  noble  and  affluent  family  at  the 
head  of  public  affairs  in  Florence.  The 
most  distinguished  was  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  who  by  his  taste  and  munifi- 
cence contributed  largely  to  the  revival 
of  learning  and  the  fine  aits ;  he  died 
1492. 

121.  When  was  printing  invented? — It 
was   invented    by  John    Gutenberg  at  Gutenberg. 
Mayence,  in  Germany,  about   1437,  and  came  generally  into 


The   Earth's      Surface     is     200,000,000     Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


306 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


use  previous  to  1500 — its  introduction   leading  to  important 
social  changes. 

122.  How  was  the  traffic  between  India  and  Europe  conducted 
in  the  middle  ages? — Chiefly  overland,  by  a  tedious  and  costly 
means  of  conveyance.  Reaching  ports  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean, goods  were  brought  in  vessels  by  sea  to  Venice,  and 
thence  distributed  over  continental  Europe. 

123.  Who  was  Bartholomew  de  Diaz  ? — He  was  a  Portuguese 
navigator,  who  discovered  the  passage  round  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  in  i486. 

124.  Who  was  Vasco  de  Gama  ? — He  was  a  Portuguese  navi- 
gator, who  was  employed  by  Emanuel,  king  of  Portugal,  to 
attempt  a  voyage  to  India  by  the  recently-discovered  route 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  With  several  ships,  Vasco 
successfully  performed  a  voyage  to  India,  the  first  ever  ac- 
complished by  the  Cape,  in  1497.  This  important  event  al- 
tered the  whole  current  of  traffic  between  Europe  and  India. 

125.  Who  was  Christopher  Columbus? — He  was  a  native  of 
Genoa,  who  conceived  the  idea  of  reaching  India  by  sailing 
westward  across  the  Atlantic,  but  had  great  difficulty  in  per- 
suading any  one  to  aid  in  the  enterprise. 

126.  Who  ultimately  favored  the  plans  of  Colujnbus  ? — Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella,  king  and  queen  of  Spain,  who  appointed 
him  to  the  command  of  three  small  vessels,  with  which  he 
sailed  on  the  3d  of  August,  1492. 

127.  What  were  the  discoveries  of  Columbus  ? — His  first  dis- 
covery was  that  of  St.  Salvador,  one  of  the  Bahama  Islands, 
on  the  I2th  of  October,  1492 — which  is  entitled  to  be  called 
the  discovery  of  America.  Columbus,  however,  thought  that 
this  and  some  other  islands  which  he  discovered  were  con- 
nected with  India,  and  hence  they  were  called  the  West  In- 
dies. The  last  of  Columbus's  discoveries  was  that  of  part  of 
the  mainland  of  South  America. 

128.  Who  was  Sebastian  Cabot? — He  was  a  Venetian  navi- 
gator, to  whom  has  usually  been  ascribed  the  discovery  of 
the  northern  coast  ot  America ;  but  this  important  discovery 
was  really  made  by  Sebastian's  father,  Giovanni  Cabot  who 
was  sent  on  an  exploratory  expedition    by  Henry  VII.  of 


0) 
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Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,    in    Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Cruds — See  page    248. 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y.  ^OJ 

England,  and  discovered  the  coast  of  North  America  in 
1497. 

129.  Who  was  Amerigo  Vespucci? — He  was  a  native  of 
Florence,  accomplished  in  various  arts  and  sciences  who 
sailed  in  an  expedition  in  1499,  i^^  the  direction  of  Colum- 
bus's discoveries.  The  land  discovered  on  this  occasion  was, 
from  his  name,  called  America,  which  has  ever  since  been  the 
name  of  the  great  western  continent. 

1 30.  Recapitulate  the  notable  events  and  circumstances  which 
promoted  modern  civilization. — i.  The  introduction  of  Arabic 
numerals  into  arithmetic  ;  2.  The  crusades,  along  with  the 
rise  and  spread  of  chivalry;  3.  The  songs  and  music  of  the 
troubadours  and  minstrels  ;  4.  The  introduction  of  the  mar- 
iners' compass  by  Marco  Polo;  5.  The  institution  of  univer- 
sities; 6.  The  invention  and  use  of  bills  of  exchange  ;  7.  The 
inventions  of  paper-making  and  printing;  8.  The  revival  of 
learning  and  arts  in  Italy ;  9.  The  discovery  of  a  sea-passage 
to  India  by  Diaz  and  Vasco  de'  Gama;  and,  10.  The 
discovery  of  America  by  Columbus  and  several  succeeding 
navigators. 

131.  What  was  the  result  of  these  events  and  circumstances? 
— They  awakened  thought,  softened  asperities,  stimulated 
commercial  enterprise,  and,  in  fact,  gave  a  new  turn  to  the 
course  of  human  affairs.  The  middle  ages  were  ended,  and 
modern  history  was  begun. 


BRITISH  HISTORY  UNTIL  1603. 

1.  What  was  the  early  condition  of  the  British  Islands? — 
When  first  mentioned  in  history,  the  British  islands  were  oc- 
cupied by  a  people  of  the  same  Celtic  race  as  that  in  Gaul, 
who  had  made  some  progress  in  the  arts  and  regular  govern- 
ment previous  to  the  Christian  era. 

2.  How  did  the  word  Britain  originate? — It  is  thought  to 
be  derived  from  the  Celtic  brith  or  brit,  painted  ;  the  ancient 
inhabitants  having  painted  their  bodies  with  colors. 

3.  What  was  the  meaning  of  Albion  applied  to  Britain  ? — 


4) 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


308 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y. 


The  term  Albion  or  Albany  signified  a  country  of  heights, 
and  was  used  by  writers  in  the  fourth  century  B.  C.  This 
very  ancient  designation  is  still  preserved  by  the  Highland- 
ers of  Scotland,  and  it  is  also  used  in  a  fanciful  way  by  the 
English. 

4.  Wko  were  the  Druids  ? — They  are  said  to  have  been  the 
priests,  teachers,  judges,  and  repositories  of  learning  in  the 
Celtic  nations  previous  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity ; 
such,  at  least,  were  the  Druids  as  briefly  described  by  Caesar 
in  Gaul  and  Britain. 

5.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  ter^n  Druid? — It  is  commonly 
said  to  be  derived  from  the  British  word  dru,  an  oak  ;  for  the 
Druids  performed  their  pagan  religious  i^tes  in  open  spaces, 
surrounded  with  tall  stones  amidst  oak  woods.  According 
to  tradition,  they  reverenced  the  mistletoe,  a  parasitic  plant 
which  grows  on  the  oak  and  other  trees.  All  accounts  of  the 
Druids,  however,  are  obscure  ana  unsatisfactory. 

6.  When  did  Julius  CcBsar  first  invade  Britain  ? — Caesar  first 
invaded  Britain  55  B.  c. ;  and  he  returned  the  following  year 
with  a  greater  force  ;  but  on  neither  occasion  did  he  effect 
any  permanent  conquest. 

7.  Who  was  Caractacus  ?~  He  V72LS  a  British  prince,  who 
made  a  noble  but  unavai  ing  defence  against  the  Romans 
on  their  third  invasion  of  Britain,  43  a.  D. 

8.  Who  was  Boadiceaf—She  was  a  British  princess,  who 
made  an  ineffectual  stand  against  the  Romans,  61 — 62  a.  d. 

9.  Who  was  Agricola  f— He  was  a  Roman  general,  who 
was  appointed  governor  of  Britain,  79  a.  d.,  and  by  him  the 
island  was  in  a  great  measure  subdued.  Agricola  marched 
with  his  army  northward,  planted  permavient  camps,  and 
fought  some  great  battles. 

10.  Who  were  the  Caledonians  ? — Such  was  the  name  given 
by  the  Romans  to  the  northern  inhabitants  of  Britain—the 
term,  it  is  believed,  signifying  dwellers  in  woods. 

11.  Did  Agricola  subdue  the  Caledonians  ?~^o  ;  he  and  his 
successors  found  them  unconquerable,  on  account  of  the  re- 
mote and  inaccessible  nature  of  their  retreats;  for  security 


The    Bastile   was  a    Prison  in    Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page   407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y. 


309 


against  their  attacks,   the  Romans  built  walls    across  the 
island. 

12.  Whe?i  was  the  first  Roman  wall  built  ? — It  was  built  in 
the  year  121  a.  D.,  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  between  the  river 
Tyne  and  the  Solway  Firth.  The  second  wall  was  built  in 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Antoninus  about  140  A.  D.,  in  order 
to  connect  a  line  of  forts  which  Agricola  had  formed  between 
the  firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde. 

13.  Did  these  walls  restrain  the  Caledonians? — No;  though 
well  defended  by  Roman  soldiers,  the  walls  were  often  broken 
through  by  the  indomitable  natives. 

14.  How  far  did  the  Romans  ever  get  northwards? — They  are 
believed  to  have  reached  the  northeast  end  of  Loch  Ness, 
near  the  modern  town  of  Inverness ;  but  they  made  no  per- 
manent stay,  and  were  obliged  to  retire  southwards. 

15.  When  was  the  third  Roman  wall  erected? — It  was  erected, 
207  A.  D.,  by  the  Emperor  Severus,  near  that  formerly  execut- 
ed by  Hadrian  ;  the  remains  of  the  wall  of  Severus  are  still 
shown.  Severus  died  at  Eboracum  (now  the  city  of  York), 
211  A.D.,  at  which  place  died  also  the  Emperor  Constantius, 
306  A.  D. 

16.  What  was  Hibernia  ?—  Hibernia  was  the  name  given  by 
the  Romans  to  Ireland  ;  but  they  did  not  invade  that  island, 
which  continued  to  be  ruled  by  Celtic  chiefs. 

1 7.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  Roman  occupation  of  Britain  ? 
— They  retained  the  island,  so  far  as  conquered,  as  a  part  of 
the  Roman  empire,  exacted  tribute,  carried  away  natives  as 
slaves  to  Rome,  built  towns,  made  roads,  and  introduced  a 
variety  of  foreign  usages. 

18.  Did  the  Romans  introduce  their  language  into  Britain? 
— This  they  failed  to  do;  the  people  continued  to  speak  the 
native  British  or  Celtic,  and  from  their  tongue  is  derived  the 
greater  number  of  our  names  of  such  natural  objects  as  rivers, 
mountains,  etc. 

19.  How  did  the  Romans  keep  up  the  communication  with 
Gaul?— It  was  by  means  of  galleys  across  the  straits  to  Ca- 
lais, and  also  by  vessels  from  London  on  the  Thames,  which 


o 
t-i 

V 

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O 

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t> 
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CO 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273 


310 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


had  already  become  a  place  of  considerable  trade  and  im 
portance. 

20.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  Calais? — Calais  is  de- 
rived from  a  Celtic  term  signifying  a  strait,  which  term  is 
radically  the  same  as  A^/^j,  applied  to  various  small  straits  in 
Scotland. 

21.  What  is  7neant  by  "  Watling  Street?" — Such  was  the 
name  given  to  the  chief  Roman  road  in  Britain,  which  ex- 
tended from  Kent  to  Cardigan  Bay.  It  was  constructed  by 
order  of  the  Roman  general  Vitellianus,  whose  name  was 
corrupted  by  the  natives  into  Watelain  ;  and  hence  Watling 
Street. 

22.  How  long  did  the  Romans  occupy  Britain?— ThQy  re- 
mained between  300  and  400  years.  About  420  A.  D.,  their 
soldiers  were  wholly  withdrawn  in  order  to  defend  Italy 
against  the  attacks  of  the  Goths,  after  which  the  stirring 
events  in  British  history  commence. 

23.  Of  what  does  British  history  consist  ? — It  consists  of  two 
separate  narratives,  one  concerning  England,  and  the  other 
Scotland,  or  the  more  northerly  section  of  Britain  ;  and  these 
narratives  remain  distinct  until  1707,  when  the  two  nations 
were  legislatively  united  on  terms  of  equality. 

24.  Does  each  narrative  embrace  the  account  of  a  distinct 
series  of  sovereigns  ? — Yes;  England  and  Scotland  had  each 
its  own  series  of  kings,  under  whom  the  two  nations  were 
often  at  war ;  and  the  interest  of  their  history  turns  not  a 
little  on  the  intrepid  manner  in  which  Scotland,  the  poorer 
and  less  populous  kingdom,  was  able  for  ages  to  preserve  its 
ancient  independence  against  the  assaults  of  its  more  pow- 
erful neighbor. 

25.  What  explanation  is  given  of  the  long-continued  indepen- 
dence of  Scotland? — The  proper  explanation  is,  that  Scotland 
became  consolidated  under  one  monarchy  before  the  English 
were  in  a  condition  to  attack  it ;  and  further,  that  the  Scots, 
with  all  their  internal  dissensions,  ordinarily  acted  with  res- 
olute patriotism  when  assailed  from  without. 

26.  Has  Ireland  a  similarly  separate  history? — No;  as  that 
island  was  attached  by  conquest  to  the  English  monarchy 


The   Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo  was    Fought    June    i8,    1815 — See   page    368. 


W 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


311 


while  it  was  under  the  rule  of  various  petty  kings  or  chiefs^ 
its  history  is  usually  merged  in  that  of  England. 

27.  What  is  known  of  the  ancient  state  of  Ireland? — The 
island  was  divided  into  the  provinces  of  Ulster,  Munster, 
Leinster,  and  Connaught,  each  having  its  own  king  ;  there 
was  also  a  king  who  ruled  over  the  central  district  of  Meath, 
to  whom  the  others  were  in  some  degree  subject.  Of  this 
early  period,  there  are  numerous  interesting  memorials  which 
engage  the  attention  of  archaeologists. 

28.  What  is  Tara? — Tara,  or  Tarah,  is  a  small  conical  hill 
in  the  county  of  Meath,  where,  it  is  said,  there  was  a  royal 
residence  in  very  early  times,  and  where  assemblies,  of  the 
nature  of  a  parliament,  were  held  every  three  years.  It  is 
mentioned  that  St.  Patrick  attended  and  took  part  at  these 
conventions. 

29.  Who  was  St.  Patrick? — He  was  a  monk  deputed  from 
Rome  by  Pope  Celestine  to  preach  in  Ireland.  He  arrived 
in  that  country  in  432,  and  his  mission  was  so  very  success- 
ful that  to  him  is  assigned  the  honor  of  having  Christianized 
the  Irish  people.  It  is  said  that  St.  Patrick  settled  at  Armagh 
about  454,  and  that  he  died  460.  He  has  ever  since  been 
venerated  as  the  patron  saint  of  Ireland. 

30.  Who  were  the  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes? — They  were 
warlike  Teutonic  tribes  inhabiting  that  northwestern  part  of 
Germany  near  the  shores  of  the,  Baltic,  which  now  compre- 
hends the  duchies  of  Holstein,  Jutland,  and  Schleswig. 

31.  Who  was  Vortigern? — He  was  elected  king  in  South 
Britain  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  Romans,  and  invited  the 
Saxons  to  aid  him  in  defending  the  country  against  the  in- 
cursions of  the  Caledonians. 

32.  What  was  the  date  of  the  arrival  of  the  Saxons? — It  was 
449  A.  D. ;  there  is  reason,  however,  to  believe  that  the  Saxons 
had  formed  small  colonies  on  the  east  coast  of  Britain,  pre- 
vious to  this  event,  and  were  already  acquainted  with  the 
country. 

33.  Who  were  Hengist  and  Horsa  ? — They  are  represented 
to  have  been  leaders  of  the  Saxons  ;  but  historians  now  con* 
sider  them  to  have  been  only  mythical  heroes. 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


V 

1 


312 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


34.  Did  the  Saxons  assist  the  British? — Yes;  but  having 
done  so,  they  made  themselves  masters  of  the  country. 

35.  When  did  the  Angles  arrive? — They  came  either  along 
with  the  Saxons,  or  shortly  afterwards;  and  from  their  in- 
termixture is  derived  the  term  Anglo-Saxon,  applied  to  the 
mixed  Teutonic  races  which  settled  in  the  southern  part  of 
Britain. 

36.  What  is  the  origin  of- the  word  England? — It  is  only  an 
abbreviation  of  Angleland,  or  the  land  of  Angles,  by  which 
the  country  became  known. 

36.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  native  British  ? — The  greater 
number  submitted  to  the  Saxons  and  Angles,  and  were  accord- 
ingly blended  in  the  general  population  ;  but  many  sought 
refuge  among  the  mountains  of  Wales  and  Cumberland,  and 
others  fled  to  that  part  of  France,  which  from  them  has  been 
called  Brittany. 

38.  What  did  the  Welsh  call  themselves  ? — They  called  them- 
selves the  Cymri,  a  term  signifying  countrymen,  or  those 
who  were  not  foreigners.  The  modern  word  Cumberland  is 
derived  from  the  same  root. 

39.  Who  was  King  Arthur? — He  was  king  of  the  Cymri  or 
Welsh  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  and  made  a 
resolute  stand  against  the  Anglo-Saxons.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  in  battle,  and  died  542.  Arthur  and  his  heroic 
deeds  have  given  rise  to  numerous  fabulous  legends. 

40.  Who  were  the  Picts? — They  were  the  more  northern 
Caledonians,  who  had  not  submitted  to  the  Romans,  and 
were  of  the  same  Celtic  race  as  the  aboriginal  British. 

41.  Who  were  the  Scots? — They  were  tribes  of  Celts  from 
Ireland  who  settled  in  the  Western  part  of  North  Britain; 
having  in  time  gained  the  ascendency  over  the  Picts,  the 
country  was  from  them  called  Scotland. 

42.  Did  the  Saxons  and  Angles  effect  any  settlement  in  North 
Britain?— Yes\  they  established  themselves  in  that  part  of 
the  country  situated  between  the  Forth  and  the  Tyne,  and  it 
is  known  that  various  Scandinavian  colonies  were  also 
formed  along  the  eastern  shores  of  the  country. 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302. 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  V.  ^  j  ^ 

43.  WAa^  was  the  Heptarchy  ?—S\ich  was  the  name  given 
to  seven  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms,  called  Kent,  East-Anglia, 
Mercia,  Essex,  Sussex,  Wessex,  and  Northumbria— this  last 
including  a  portion  of  what  is  now  Scotland.  The  term 
Heptarchy  signifies  seven  governments. 

44.  When  did  the  Heptarchy  commence?— \\,  is  impossible  to 
tell  exactly,  but  Mercia,  the  latest  of  the  seven  Anglo-Saxon 
States,  was  founded  in  585.  Including  the  Welsh,  Cumbrian, 
Pictish,  Scottish,  and  other  petty  states,  there  were  at  least 
fourteen  different  governments  at  one  time  in  Britain  ;  among 
which  several  languages,  native  and  foreign,  were  in  use. 

45.  When  was  Christianity  introduced  into  Britain  ? — It  was 
made  partially  known  during  the  Roman  dominion,  and  was 
afterwards  propagated  by  various  missionaries  from  Rome 
and  also  from  Ireland. 

46.  Mention  the  names  of  the  more  remarkable  Missionaries 
to  Britain. — St.  Ninian,  St.  Columba,  St.  Kentigern  or 
Mungo,  and  St.  Augustine.  By  the  three  first  mentioned, 
■who  are  usually  spoken  of  as  Culdees,  Christianity  was 
made  generally  known  in  Scotland  before  St.  Augustine  ap- 
peared in  England, 

47.  Who  were  the  Culdees? — They  were  priests  or  monks 
in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity  in  the  British  islands,  and 
are  known  to  have  had  several  monastic  establishments  in 
Ireland  and  Scotland.  The  term  Culdee  is  from  the  Celtic 
Irish  language,  and  signifies  an  attendant  on  God. 

48.  Did  the  Culdees  differ  in  doctrine  or  discipline  fro7n  the 
Church  of  Rome  ? — Not  materially ;  it  was  long  thought  that 
the  Culdees  held  some  other  form  of  Christianity  than  that 
of  the  Church  of  Rome,  but  late  investigations  show  that 
they  did  not  differ  in  any  material  point  of  faith,  discipline, 
or  ritual  from  the  other  Catholic  clergy  of  the  period  ;  ulti- 
mately, the  Culdees,  generally,  became  known  as  Canons 
Regular. 

49.  When  did  St.  Columba  begin  his  missionary  labors  ? — 
He  came  from  Ireland  in  563,  and  commenced  establishing  a 
religious  settlement  in  the  small  island  of  I,  now  called  lona 

14 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators— See    page    278, 


2 1  .  BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y, 

whence  the  light  of  Christianity  was  diffused  over  the  north- 
western Caledonian  regions. 

50.  Who  was  St.  Augustine  f— He  was  a  monk  deputed 
from  Rome  by  Gregory  I.  in  the  year  596,  to  convert  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  in  which  great  work  he  was  successful.  He 
became  first  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  By  the  labors  of  St. 
Augustine  and  others,  Christianity  was  very  generally  dif- 
fused, and  an  ecclesiastical  system  established  about  the  end 
of  the  sixth  century. 

51.  How  long  did  the  Heptarchy  endure  .^— It  lasted  until 
827,  when  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex,  gained  an  ascendency 
over  the  other  states,  and  united  the  whole  into  one  sover- 
eignty. This  event  marks  the  origin  of  the  kingdom  of 
England. 

52.  Who  was  Alfred f—AUred,  usually  styled  Alfred  the 
Great,  was  the  grandson  of  Egbert,  and  as  king  of  England 
was  famed  for  his  courage,  sagacity,  and 
amiable  disposition.  During  his  reign, 
which  began  in  871,  England  was  in- 
vaded by  the  Danes,  who  for  a  time 
usurped  the  government ;  but  Alfred 
afterwards  expelled  them.     He  died  901. 

53.  Did  the  Danes  again  invade  Eng- 
land?— Yes ;  they  came  in  great  force 
in   1013,    and   having   overthrown    the 
Anglo-Saxons,  they  established  a  Dan-        Alfred  the  Great, 
ish  dynasty, 

54.  How  many  kings  were  there  of  the  Danish  dynasty? — Four 
— Sweyn,  Canute,  Harold,  and  Hardicanute ;  of  these  the 
most  noted  was  Canute,  who  ruled  with  great  discretion. 

55.  What  is  the  story  about  Canute  and  the  sea  ? — It  is  re- 
lated that  his  courtiers  affected  to  think  that  all  things  would 
be  obedient  to  his  command.  In  order  to  reprove  their  adu- 
lation, he  caused  his  chair  to  be  placed  on  the  sea-shore 
while  the  tide  was  coming  in,  and  commanded  the  waves  to 
retire.  The  sea.  however,  continued  to  advance,  and  at 
length  surrounded  his  chair,  whereupon  Canute  made  same 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779 See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See  page    133. 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y.  315 

observations  concerning  the   limited  nature  of   all  earthly 
power. 

56.  Did  the  Da7ies  ravage  Ireland? — Yes  ;  they  made  sev- 
eral descents  on  Ireland  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  ; 
they  also  committed  great  havoc  in  various  parts  of  that 
country,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century. 

57.  Who  was  Brian  Boroihine  ? — Brian  Boroihme  (pro- 
nounced Borou),  was  a  king  or  chieftain  of  note  in  Ireland, 
who  defeated  the  Danes  at  the  battle  of  Clontarf,  in  1014. 

58.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Institutions? — 
They  were  favorable  to  justice  and  liberty.  To  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  is  traced  that  love  of  constitutional  government,  and 
also  that  sense  of  justice,  which  distinguish  the  character  of 
the  English. 

59.  Mention  two  i^nportant  Anglo-Saxon  institutions. — The 
Witenagemote,  and  trial  by  jury. 

60.  What  was  the  WitenagejnSte  ? — It  was  a  species  of  par- 
liament called  together  by  the  king  to  decide  on  affairs  of 
state  ;  the  term  literally  signifies  a  meeting  of  wise  men. 

61.  What  was  Trial  by  Ordeal? — It  was  an  Anglo-Saxon 
method  of  determining  facts  in  criminal  cases,  too  intricate 
for  ordinary  judgment.  Chance  ruled  the  decision.  The  ac- 
cused was  ordered  to  grasp  red-hot  iron,  and  if  his  hand 
showed  marks  of  burning,  he  was  held  to  be  guilty ;  if  his 
hand  was  uninjure  d,  he  was  held  to  be  innocent.  Prayers 
accompanied  this  and  other  forms  of  trial  by  ordeal,  which 
was  meant  as   a  direct  appeal  to  the  Deity. 

62.  Did  differences  of  rank  prevail  in  Anglo-Saxon  times  ? — 
Yes ;  there  was  an  aristocracy,  or  body  of  nobles  who  bore 
the  title  of  eorls  or  earls,  among  whom  was  an  officer  called 
an  ealdorman  (meaning  "  older  man"  or  "  senator") — hence  the 
modern  term  alderman. 

63.  What  were  the  duties  of  the  Eorl? — He  was  the  princi- 
pal officer  in  a  district,  and  had  a  deputy  called  scirger^fa — 
a  term  now  modified  into  the  word  sheriff.  Hence  shires,  or 
counties,  as  they  were  afterwards  named,  when  presided  over 
by  Norman  counts,  were  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin. 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65 


n 


316 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  V. 


64.  IV/iai  were  Thanes? — Thanes  were  landholders  ol 
high  rank ;  proprietors  of  lesser  distinction  were  called 
Franklins. 

65.  DLi  Serfdom  exist  under  the  Anglo-Saxons  ? — Yes  ;  the 
majority  of  the  people  were  in  a  servile  state,  and  the  Nor- 
man barons  only  increased  the  rigor  of  the  servitude  in 
which  the  "  thralls"  were  kept  by  the  Saxon  thanes.  Many 
of  the  Franklins,  it  is  believed,  lost  their  lands  and  liberty  at 
the  Conquest. 

66.  Who  was  Edward  the  Confessor? — He  was  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  prince,  who  was  chosen  king  on  the  death  of  Hardi- 
canute,  1042,  by  which  means  the  old  dynasty  was  restored. 
Edward  was  surnamed  the  Confessor  on  account  of  his  piety. 
He  died  1066. 

67.  Who  was  Harold? — He  was  son  of  Godwin,  Earl  of 
Wessex,  who,  on  the  death  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  usurped 
the  crown,  to  the  prejudice  ot  Prince  Edgar  Atheling,  the 
nearest  heir  of  the  deceased  king,  and  remained  in  power  till 
deposed  by  William  the  Conqueror. 

68.  Who  was  William  the  Conqueror? — He  was  Duke  of 
Normandy,  a  warlike  and  ambitious  personage,  who  contested 
the  right  of  Harold  to  the  crown,  and  with  a  large  force  of 
Normans  invaded  England,  1066. 

69.  What  was  the  battle  of  Hastings  ? — It  was  a  battle  fought 
near  Hastings,  on  the  south  coast  of  England,  between  Wil- 
liam of  Normandy  and  Harold,  October  14,  1066,  in  which 
Harold  was  defeated  and  slain. 

70.  What  has  this  victory  by  William  been  usually  called? — 
It  has  been  styled  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  forms  a  lead- 
ing event  in  English  history,  for  it  terminated  the  rule  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  and  introduced  a  Norman-French  dynasty, 
along  with  the  feudal  system,  and  many  new  families  of  for- 
eign lineage. 

71.  What  is  Williatn  styled  an  English  history? — He  is 
styled  William  I.  or  William  the  Conqueror. 

72.  Did  William  I.  relinquish  his  Norman  dukedom  ? — No  ; 
though  settling  as  king  in  England,  he  retained  his  Norman 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47, 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y.  ^  1 7  §> 

p< 

dukedom,  a  circumstance  which  long  connected  the  English  « 

kings  with  France,  and  from  which  till  this  day  the  English  | 

hold   possession   of   Guernsey,  Jersey,  and  other   Channel  Q 

Islands.  <J 

73.  What  was  Doomsday  Book? — It  was  a  minute  survey  of 
the  whole  of  England,  executed  by  order  of  William  L,  and 
completed  1086.  It  states  the  name  of  every  proprietor  of 
land  and  the  extent  of  his  possessions,  and  forms  an  invalu-  .3 
able  record  of  the  condition  of  England  in  the  eleventh 
century. 

74.  What  was  Curfew? — It  was  the  ringing  of  a  bell  at 
sunset  in  winter  and  eight  o'clock  in  summer,  as  a  warning 
to  put  out  the  fire  in  every  dwelling — the  word  curfew  being 
a  corruption  of  the  French  couvre-feu,  cover-fire.  The  cur- 
few is  ordinarily  said  to  have  been  imposed  by  William  I., 
but  it  is  known  to  have  prevailed  throughout  Europe  at  an 
earlier  period  as  a  precaution  against  fires. 

75.  What  effect  had  the  Norman  Conquest  on  the  English 
laiiguage? — It  was  the  means  of  introducing  Norman-French, 
\rhich  was  long  the  language  of  the  court  and  the  law ; 
this  French  was  in  time  blended  with  the  Anglo-Saxon 
which  previously  prevailed,  and  the  result,  with  a  later  ad- 
mixture of  Latin,  was  the  modern  English. 

76.  Did  William  subvert  the  Anglo-Saxon  instittdions  ? — No ; 
but  he  added  to  them  feudal  usages,  and  from  his  time  the 
titled  aristocracy  rose  in  social  importance.  The  Saxon  dig- 
nity of  Thane  was  now  changed  to  Baron. 

TJ.  What  was  Villenage? — It  was  a  peculiar  tenure  of  land 
instituted  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  founded  on  the 
servile  state  of  the  occupants  of  the  soil,  who  were  allowed 
to  hold  land  only  on  condition  of  performing  raenial  services 
to  their  "  lord"  or  "  superior."  Persons  in  this  servile  state 
were  styled  villeins— Yi^ncQ  the  common  English  word  villain. 

78.  What  were  the  Forest  Laws? — They  were  severe  enact- 
ments of  William  the  Conqueror  respecting  the  royal  forests 
and  the  preservation  of  deer  and  other  wild  animals.  The 
"  game  laws"  of  modern  times  are  a  remnant  of  these  Norman 
forest  laws. 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors.— See    page    243. 


318 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


79.  When  was  the  Tower  of  London  built  ? — It  was  built  b^ 
William  the  Conqueror,  1078  ;  and  the  year  following,  Wil- 
liam granted  the  first  charter  to  the  city  of  London. 

80.  When  did  Wilham  the  Conqueror  die? — He  died  in 
1087,  leaving  the  country  in  so  powerful  and  settled  a  condi- 
tion, that  it  never  again  was  conquered  by  foreigners. 

81.  What  is  learned  from  history  of  the  early  Scottish  mon- 
archy?— Mention  is  made  of  a  double  series  of  kings,  Pictish 
and  Scottish,  who  were  frequently  at  war  with  each  other. 
At  length,  in  the  year  843,  Kenneth,  king  of  Scots,  added 
the  Pictish  kingdom  to  his  own,  and  the  monarchy  was  still 
further  consolidated  by  the  annexation  of  Northumbria,  by 
Malcolm  II.,  in  1018. 

82.  Who  was  Duncan? — He  was  a  king  of  the  Scots,  who 
was  killed  by  Macbeth,  a  usurper  of  the  crown,  1039,  on  which 
Malcolm,  the  eldest  son  of  Duncan,  fled  to  England  for  pro- 
tection. 

83.  Did  Malcolm  recover  the  Scottish  crown  ? — Yes  ;  by  the 
assistance  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  he  recovered  the  king- 
dom from  Macbeth,  who  was  slain  in  battle,  1056.  Malcolm 
now  ascended  the  throne  as  Malcolm  III.;  but  he  is  better 
remembered  as  Malcolm  Canmore,  having  been  so  called  from 
his  large  head  {Can-mohr,  Celtic  for  "  big  head"). 

84.  Whom  did  Malcolm  Canmore  marry  ? — He  married  Mar- 
garet, an  Anglo-Saxon  princess,  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling, 
who  sought  refuge  in  Scotland  1068,  after  the  Norman  con- 
quest of  England.  From  her  great  piety,  Queen  Margaret 
was  canonized,  and  is  traditionally  remembered  as  St.  Mar- 
garet. 

85.  What  influence  did  Queen  Margaret  exert  over  Scotland? 
—She  greatly  contributed  to  spread  a  knowledge  of  the  An- 
glo-Saxon tongue,  and  in  her  time  Scotland  became  the  ref- 
uge of  many  Anglo-Saxon  chiefs.  So  many  social  meliora- 
tions took  place  at  this  period,  that  the  reign  of  Malcolm 
Canmore  marks  an  important  era  in  Scottish  history. 

86.  When  did  Malcolm  Canmore  die?~He  was  killerl  at  the 
siege  of  Alnwick,    in  1093.     He  was  succeeded,  after   tw(? 


Crcesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


THE  TOWER  OF  LONDON    [ERECTED    IO78]  — 12  VIEWS FAMOUS  IN 

THE    BLOODY    ANNALS    OF    ENGLISH    HISTORY,  AS    A    STATE 
PRISON    AND    PLACE    OF    EXECUTION.^  318. 


Of  THE  >. 

i    UNIYERSriY.  ) 


Printing   was    Invented    in    i437>   by   Jo^"    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y.  3  j^ 

brief  usurpations,  by  his  eldest  son,   Edgar,  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  next  brother,  Alexander  I. 

87.  Who  was  David  I.  f — He  was  the  youngest  son  of 
Malcolm  Canmore  and  Queen  Margaret,  and  ultimately  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  in  1124.  Like  his  mother,  he  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  piety,  which  led  him  to  build  many 
splendid  abbeys  and  religious  houses  of  lesser  note. 

88.  For  what  was  the  reign  of  David  remarkable  ? — With 
this  reign  written  charters  to  property  in  Scotland  begin  ; 
to  it  is  also  to  be  traced  the  settlement  of  Anglo-Norman 
chiefs,  and  the  introduction  of  feudal  tenure — by  which,  and 
previous  advances,  Scotland  acquired  a  similarity  of  usages 
with  England.  David  died  11 53,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
grandson,  Malcolm  IV.,  styled  Malcolm  the  maiden. 

89.  When  was  the  present  border  of  England  and  Scotland 
settled? — With  some  minor  exceptions,  the  present  border 
dates  from_  11 57,  in  the  reign  of  Malcolm  IV.,  when  Cumber- 
land was  severed  from  Scotland  and  attached  to  England. 

90.  When  did  Malcolm  IV.  die? — He  died  1165;  his  suc- 
cessors were  William  the  Lion,  Alexander  II.,  and  Alexander 
III.  This  last  was  killed  by  accident  in  1285,  and  left  only  a 
grand-daughter,  Margaret,  known  as  the "  Maiden  of  Nor- 
way," at  whose  death,  1290,  there  ensued  a  violent  competi- 
tion for  the  throne,  followed  by  a  disastrous  civil  war. 

91.  Who  succeeded  William  the  Conqueror  ? — His  son, 
William  II.,  slirnamed  i??^/'//^,  from  the  red  color  of  his  hair. 

92.  Mention  some  events  in  the  reign  of  William  Rufus. — 
The  crusades  were  begun  in  Continental  Europe,  1096,  and 
Westminster  Hall  was  built,  1097. 

93.  What  was  the  fate  of  Rufus? — He  was  accidentally 
killed  by  an  arrow,  shot  by  Sir  Walter  Tyrrell,  in  the  New 
Forest,  in  iioo,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry  I., 
surnamed  Beauclerc,  from  being  a  fine  scholar. 

94.  Who  was  '* Maud  the  Good?" — Maud  was  the  daughter 
of  Malcolm  Canmore,  king  of  Scots,  and  wife  of  Henry  I. 

95.  What  children  had  Henry  and  Maud? — They  had  a  son 
who  was  lost  at  sea,  and  a  daughter,  Matilda  or  Maud,  mar- 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821— See  page  411. 


2  20  BRITfSH  HIS  TOR  Y. 

ried,  while  still  a  child,  to  the  emperor  of  Germany ;  thai 
person  dying,  she  was  married  to  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  Count 
Anjou,  and  had  a  son,  Henry. 

96.  Who  succeeded  Henry  I.  ?— At  h\s  death,  in  1 135,  there 
was  a  contest  for  the  crown.  The  proper  heir  was  Henry 
Plantagenet,  son  of  Matilda  ;  but  a  usurper  appeared  in  the 
person  of  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois,  son  of  Adele,  fifth  daughter 
of  William  the  Conqueror ;  and  he  was  allowed  by  a  com- 
promise, after  a  bloody  struggle,  to  be  king,  on  condition  of 
being  succeeded  by  Henry. 

97.  Who  built  St.  Stephens  Chapel,  adjoining  Westminster 
Hall}— It  was  built  by  King  Stephen,  and  dedicated  to  his 
namesake,  St.  Stephen,  about  1135.  Two  centuries  after- 
wards, St.  Stephen's  was  appropriated  to  the  use  of  parliament. 

98.  How  did  the  Plantagenet  dynasty  originate? — It  origin- 
ated by  the  accession  of  Henry  Plantagenet  to  the  throne  as 
Henry  H.,  on  the  decease  of  Stephen,  in  11 54. 

99.  Who  was  Thomas  h  Becket? — He  was  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, and  from  his  learning  and  wisdom,  had  been  ap- 
pointed Lord  Chancellor  of  England  ;  but  incurring  the  dis- 
like of  Henry  U.,  by  opposing  Henry's  schemes  of  church 
polity,  that  monarch  instigated  a  band  of  nobles  to  kill  him ; 
this  foul  murder  took  place  in  the  cathedral  of  Canterbury, 
1 1 70. 

100.  What  were  pilgrimages  to  Canterbury? — They  were 
pious  expeditions  undertaken  by  great  numbers  of  persons 
to  worship  at  Canterbury  at  the  shrine  of  Thomas  a  Becket, 
who  was  canonized  as  a  saint  ;  these  pilgrimages  continued 
till  the  sixteenth  century. 

101.  When  was  Ireland  attached  to  the  English  monarchy  ?~ 
In  1 1 55,  Henry  n.  obtained  a  bull  from  Pope  Adrian  IV., 
authorizing  him  to  take  possession  of  the  island,  and  he  dici 
so  about  1 171 ;  but  the  English  rule  was  not  confirmed  till 
the  reign  of  King  John,  1210. 

102.  When  was  the  first  London  Bridge  built? — The  first 
stone  bridge  across  the  Thames  at  London  was  begun  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.,  1176,  and  finished  in  1209. 

103.  Who  was  Richard  Casur-de-Lion? — He  was  the  eldest 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


BRITISH  HISTORY.  32 1 

surviving  son  of  Henry  II.,  and  acceded  to  the  throne  on 
the  death  of  his  father,  1189.  Richard  gained  celebrity  as  a 
crusader,  and  was  surnamed  Cceur-de-Lzoft,  or  Lion-hearted, 
on  account  of  his  bravery  and  magnanimity. 

104.  When  did  Richard  Cceur-de-Lion  die? — He  died  11 99, 
by  the  wound  of  an  arrow,  shot  from  the  castle  of  Chaluz, 
Limoges.  He  was  buried  at  the  abbey  of  Fontevrault,  where 
his  tomb  is  still  shown. 

105.  Who  was  King  John? — He  was  brother  of  Richard 
Coeur-de-Lion,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1199. 

106.  What  was  Magna  Chart  a  ? — Magna  Charta,  or  the 
Great  Charter,  was  a  deed  subscribed  by  King  John  at  Run- 
nymede,  near  Windsor,  in  121 5,  securing  certain  rights  and 
privileges  to  the  barons,  clergy,  and  freemen.  This  charter, 
resting  on  certain  Anglo-Saxon  usages,  and  notions  of  com- 
mon-sense is  reckoned  the  foundation  of  English  liberty. 

107.  Define  two  or  three  of  the  leading  provisions  of  Magna 
Charta. — No  tax  is  to  be  imposed  without  the  consent  of  the 
kingdom ;  no  freeman  is  to  be  imprisoned  or  punished  with- 
out lawful  trial  by  jury,  and  if  the  trial  is  delayed,  the  accused 
can  apply  to  be  tried  or  set  at  liberty.  The  charter,  how- 
ever, took  but  little  notice  of  serfs  or  villeins,  and  it  was  only 
in  the  progress  of  society  that  these  humble  classes  at  length 
participated  in  the  privileges  assured  to  the  barons,  clergy, 
and  freemen. 

108.  Who  succeeded  Kin^  John?—liQ  was  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  son,  Henry  III.,  1216. 

109.  When  was  Westminster  Abbey  built  f—ThQ  greater 
part  of  the  abbey  as  it  now  exists  was  built  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.,  about  1220,  but  portions  remain  of  a  previous 
church  erected  by  Edward  the  Confessor;  and  it  is  said  that 
the  first  church  on  the  spot  was  built  by  Sibert,  king  of  Es- 
sex, about  610. 

1 10.  When  was  the  Parliament  of  England  first  constituted  f 
^The  first  regularly  constituted  parliament,  embracing 
knights,  citizens,  and  burgesses,  took  place  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.,  1265.     Previous  parliaments  had  been  of  a  less 


The   Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


322 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y. 


perfect  kind  ;  1265  is  therefore  the  date  of  a  confirmed  repre 
sentation  of  the  people  in  a  House  of  Commons. 

111.  Who  succeeded  Henry  III.  ? — He  was  succeeded  in  1272 
by  his  eldest  son,  Edward  I.,  one  of  the^reatest  sovereigns  of 
England. 

112.  When  did  Edward  I.  conquer  Wales? — He  conquered 
it  and  added  it  to  the  English  monarchy  in  1282.  His  infant 
son  Edward  was  created  Prince  of  Wales  soon  after  his  birth, 
and  ever  since,  this  title  has  pertained  to  the  eldest  son  of  the 
sovereign  of  England. 

113.  Who  was  Queen  Eleanor  ? — She  was  the  wife  of  Edward 
I.,  who  held  her  in  such  high  esteem,  that  at  her  death  in 
1290,  he  erected  a  number  of  crosses  to  her  memory.  These 
edifices,  usually  called  Norman  crosses,  were  placed  on  spots 
where  the  body  of  Queen  Eleanor  rested  in  its  funeral  pro- 
gress to  Westminster.  Among  the  number  were  the  crosses 
at  Northampton,  St.  Albans,  Waltham,  and  village  of  Char- 
ing— hence  the  name  Charing  Cross. 

114.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Jews  in  England  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  ? — They  suffered  great  injustice 
and  cruelty,  were  often  subjected  to  grievous  exactions,  and 
always  exposed  to  unmerited  contumely.  In  1290,  upwards 
of  15,000  were  banished  from  England.  The  maltreatment  of 
the  Jews  rests  as  a  stain  on  the  memory  of  Edward  I.,  and 
some  other  kings  of  the  Plantagenet  dynasty. 

115.  Who  were  John  Baliol  and  Robert  Bruce? — They  were 
two  Scottish  nobles  who  competed  for  the  throne  of  Scot- 
land, after  the  decease  of  Alexander  HI. ;  the  dispute  being 
referred  to  Edward  I.  as  arbitrator,  he  decided  in  favor  of 
Baliol,  but  soon  stripped  him  of  his  sovereignty,  and  en 
deavored  by  force  of  arms  to  take  the  kingdom  to  himself. 

116.  What  has  Edward  I.  been  called? — He  has  been  styled 
the  Hammer  of  the  Scots,  from  the  manner  in  which  he  forci- 
bly reduced  the  country  to  temporary  subjection. 

117.  What  was  the  "  Stone  of  Scone?"— It  was  a  stone  on 
which  the  kings  of  Scotland  had  been  crowned  at  Scone 
(pronounced  Scoon),  said  to  be  of  great  antiquity.  This  stone, 
being  taken  to  England,  is  now  attached  to  a  chair  of  state 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Gods. — See  page    248. 


Oi 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y. 


323 


in    Westminster    Abbe3%     on    which    the     sovereigns     are 
crowned. 

118.  Who  was  Wilh'am  Wallace? — He  was  a  celebrated 
Scottish  patriot,  younger  son  of  a  gentleman  in  Renfrew- 
shire, who  endeavored  with  great  gallantry  to  expel  the  Eng- 
lish from  Scotland,  but  after  various  achievements,  was  by 
treachery  delivered  to  Edward,  and  subjected  to  a  cruel  death 
in  London,  1305. 

1 19.  Who  was  Robert  I,  ? — He  was  Robert  Bruce,  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Carrick,  and  grandson  of  the  Robert  Bruce  who  com- 
peted for  the  crown  of  Scotland  with  Baliol  ;  he  finally  es- 
tablished himself  as  king  by  the  victory  of  Bannockburn,  and 
assumed  the  designation  of  Robert  I. 

120.  When  was  the  Irish  parliament  instituted? — The  first 
regular  parliament,  consisting  of  persons  representing  the 
English  in  Ireland,  was  summoned  in  1295  by  Sir  John  Wogan, 
chief  governor  under  Edward  I. 

121.  When  did  Edward  L  die? — He  died  in  1367,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Edward  H.,  by  whom,  as  well  as  by  his 
successor,  Edward  HI.,  the  Scots  continued  to  be  troubled. 

122.  When  was  the  battle  of  Ban7tockburn  fought  ? — It  was 
fought  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.,  on  the  24th  of  June,  1314. 

123.  When  did  Robert  I.  die? — He  died  in  1329,  and  left  an 
only  son,  a  child  by  a  second  marriage,  David  II.,  during 
whose  minority  the  government  was  administered  by  an  em- 
inept  regent,  Randolph,  Earl  of  Moray.  By  his  first  mar- 
riage, Robert  I.  left  a  daughter,  Marjory. 

1 24.  Did  David  II.  enjoy  the  throne  peacefully  ? — No  ;  he 
was  involved  in  contests  with  the  English,  was  taken  pris- 
oner, and  kept  in  captivity  eleven  years,  but  was  at  length  re- 
leased by  Edward  III.,  on  paying  a  heavy  ransom,  1357.  David 
II.  died  without  issue,  1370. 

125.  When  did  the  Stuart  dynasty  begin? — The  Stuart  or 
Stewart  dynasty  began  with  Robert  11. ,  nephew  and  succes- 
sor of  David  II.  Robert  was  a  son  of  Marjory  Bruce,  who 
had  married  Walter,  Lord  High  Steward  of  Scotland,  and 
hence  his  surname. 

126.  Who   were   the  immediate  successors  of  Robert  II.  f--* 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology.  Numbered    12.— See  page   242 


2  24  BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y 

Robert  III.,  James  I.,  James  II.,  James  III.,  James   IV.,  and 
James  V. 

127.  What  was  the  fate  of  James  I.? — Though  the  most  ac- 
complished prince  of  his  time,  he  was  barbarously  murdered 
in  1437. 

128.  How  did  the  Shetland  and  Orkney  Islands  become  attached, 
to  the  Scottish  7nonarchy  f — In  1468,  James  III.  married  a  Dan- 
ish princess,  whose  dowry  was  60,000  florins,  for  which  these 
islands  were  given  in  pledge.  As  the  dowry  was  never  paid, 
the  islands  remained  a  possession  of  the  Scots. 

1 29.  What  claim  did  Edward  III.  inake  to  France  ? — He  pre- 
tended a  right  to  the  crown  through  his  mother;  and  taking 
the  title  of  king  of  France,  1340,  he  assumed  for  his  motto, 
Dieu  et  mon  Droit  ("  God  and  my  right"),  which  has  ever  since 
been  borne  by  the  kings  of  England.  After  a  long  siege, 
Edward  captured  Calais,  on  which  occasion  he  designed  to 
hang  six  of  the  citizens;  but  their  lives  were  spared  at  the 
intercession  of  Queen  Philippa. 

130.  Who  was  Edward  the  Black  Prince? — He  was  eldest 
son  of  Edward  III.,  and  was  called  the  Black  Prince  from  the 
color  of  his  armor.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  French 
at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  1346  ;  among  the  killed  was  the  king 
of  Bohemia,  whose  crest,  consisting  of  three  ostrich  feathers 
with  the  motto  Ich  Dien  (I  serve),  was  adopted  by  Edward, 
and  has  ever  since  been  borne  by  the  Princes  of  Wales. 

131.  When  was  Calais  captured  by  Edward  III.? — It  was 
taken  in  1347,  and  remained  for  211  years  in  possession  of 
the  English. 

1 32.  When  was  the  battle  of  Poictiers  fought  ? — It  was  fought 
in  1356,  when  Edward  the  Black  Prince  gained  a  victory  over 
the  French. 

1 33.  What  was  the  "  Statute  of  Kilkenny  f " — It  was  an  act  of 
the  Irish  parliament,  which  was  passed  in  1367,  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  III.,  decree'  g  excommunication  and  heavy  pen- 
alties against  all  who  ollowed  the  customs  of,  or  allied  them- 
selves with,  the  native  Irish.  This  famous  act  never  had 
much  efiicacy  beyond  the  Pale. 

1 34.  What  was  the  Pale  ? — It  was  a  district  of  country  round 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y. 


325 


the  seat  of  government,  over  which  the  English  rule  was  ac- 
knowledged and  obeyed — all  beyond  the  Pale  being  held 
by  a  very  imperfect  tenure.  The  extent  of  the  Pale  differed 
at  different  times,  but  in  a  general  way  may  be  said  to  have 
been  a  strip  along  the  east  side  of  the  island,  comprising  the 
counties  of  Dublin,  Meath,  Carlow,  Kilkenny,  and  Louth. 

135.  V/hen  did  the  Black  Prince  die? — He  died  in  the  life- 
time of  his  father,  1376.  Edward  IIL,  who  died  next  year, 
had  six  other  sons,  including  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  and 
John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  also  five  daughters. 

136.  Who  succeeded  Edward  III.? — He  was  succeeded  by 
his  grandson  Richard  H.,  son  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince. 

137.  Who  was  Wat  Tyler? — He  was  a  man  of  humble  de- 
gree, who  headed  a  popular  tumult,  1381,  arising  from  the 
imposition  of  a  poll-tax  and  other  grievances,  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  H.  Tyler  was  stabbed  by  Walworth,  lord-mayor  of 
London,  from  which  event  the  figure  of  a  dagger  is  still 
borne  in  the  armorial  bearings  of  the  city  of  London. 

138.  Whowas  Wickliffe? — John  Wickliffe  or  Wycliffe  was 
a  learned  English  clergyman  in  the  reign  of  Edward  HL  and 
Richard  U. ;  he  became  noted  for  preaching  against  the 
powers  claimed  by  the  pope,  and  for  announcing  certain  re- 
formed doctrines.  Wickliffe  died  in  1384,  and  has  been  styled 
the  "  Morning  Star  of  the  Reformation." 

139.  What  was  the  fate  of  Richard  II.? — He  was  deposed 
and  murdered,  1399,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin,  Henry 
IV.,  eldest  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  in  preju- 
dice of  Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March,  great-grandson  of 
Lionel,  third  son  of  Edward  HL 

140.  Who  was  Henry  Hotspur? — He  was  a  son  of  Percy, 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  who,  along  with  a  valiant  Welsh- 
man, Owen  Glendower,  raised  a  rebellion  against  Henry  IV.; 
the  rebel  forces  were  defeated  at  Shrewsbury,  and  Hotspur 
was  killed,  1403. 

141.  Who  was  the  immediate  successor  of  Henry  IV.  and  V.? 
— Henry  VI.,  in  whose  reign  an  insurrection  broke  out  under 
Jrick  Cade,  1450  ;  after  attempting  to  sack  London,  Cade  was 
killed,  and  the  insurgents  were   dispersed.      In  this  reign, 

14  A 


% 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C.— See  page  273. 


326 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


about  1453,  the  English  lost  all  their  possessions  in  Frances 
Henry  VI.  was  deposed  1461,  and  was  murdered  by  Richard, 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  youngest  son  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York, 
1471.     He  was  succeeded  by  Edward  IV. 

142.  When  did  Edward IV.  die? — He  died  1483;  his  son, 
Edward  V.,  after  a  short  reign,  was  deposed  and  murdered  b}/ 
his  uncle,  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester  (brother  of  Edward 
IV.),  who  usurped  the  throne  as  Richard  III.  1483. 

143.  Who  was  William  Caxton  ? — He  was  a  citizen  of  Lon- 
don, who  introduced  the  art  of  printing  into  England  ;  he  set 
up  a  press  at  Westminster  about  1471. 

144.  What  were  the  wars  of  the  Roses  f — They  were  civil 
wars  between  the  rival  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster;  the 
badge  of  the  York  family  was  a  white,  and  that  of  Lancaster 
a  red,  rose — hence  the  name  of  these  fierce  and  desolating 
contests. 

145.  Which  party  was  ultimately  successful? — The  house  of 
Lancaster,  which,  in  the  person  of  Henry  Tudor,  Earl  of 
Richmond,  overcame  the  House  of  York,  represented  by 
Richard  III.  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth,  1485,  when  Richard 
was  killed,  and  Richmond  ascended  the  throne  as  Henry  VII. 
So  ended  the  dynasty  of  the  Plantagenets. 

146.  When  did  the  Tudor  dynasty  begin  ? — It  began  with 
Henry  VII.,  the  son  of  Edmund  Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond,  who 
was  the  son  of  Owen  Tudor,  a  Welsh  gentleman.  The  Tu- 
dors  rose  to  distinction  by  Owen  marrying  Queen  Catherine, 
widow  of  Henry  V.  Their  son  Edmund  still  further  ad- 
vanced the  interests  of  the  family  by  marrying  a  great-grand- 
daughter of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  and  it  was 
through  this  lady,  his  mother,  that  Henry  laid  claim  to  the 
throne. 

147.  By  whom  were  affairs  in  Ireland  administered? — They 
were  administered  at  this  period  by  an  officer  styled  theZ^rJ 
Deputy,  who  was  appointed  by  the  English  sovereign. 

148.  What  was  " Poyning's  law?" — It  was  the  celebrated 
statute  of  Drogheda,  passed  in  1495,  during  the  administratioa 
of  Lord  Deputy  Poyning. 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793     to     1794, — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815. — See   page    368. 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y. 


327 


149.  What  was  the  aim  of  Poy?izng's  Law?— Its  aim  was  to 
place  the  Irish  parHament  under  the  direct  control  of  the 
English  executive,  so  as  to  prevent  the  great  Anglo-Irish 
families  from  uniting  to  resist  the  English  government. 

150.  What  did  Poyning's  Law  specially  enact? — It  enacted 
that  all  statutes  lately  passed  in  England  should  be  law  in 
Ireland  ;  and  in  interpretation  of  this,  the  whole  English 
statute  law,  prior  to  the  eighteenth  year  of  Henry  VII.,  was 
transplanted  to  Ireland. 

1 51.  Who  was  Perkin  War  deck? — He  was  a  pretender  who 
affected  to  be  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  the  younger  brother 
of  EdwardV.,  and,  as  such,  entitled  to  be  king  in  preference 
to  Henry  VII.  Perkin  having  raised  a  rebellion,  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  hanged  at  Tyburn,  1499. 

1 52.  What  was  the  character  of  Henry  VII.  ? — He  was  avar- 
icious and  cold-tempered  ;  but  he  ruled  with  much  sagacity, 
and  promoted  a  number  of  laws  beneficial  to  the  country. 

153.  How  were  the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  united? — 
By  Henry  VII,  marrying  Elizabeth,  eldest 
daughter  of  Edward  IV.     Henry  died  in 
1509,   leaving  one    son,  Henry,  and  two 
daughters,  Margaret    and  Mary. 

154.  Who  was  Henry  VIII.? — He  was 
the  surviving  son  and  successor  of  Henry 
VII.,  and  ascended  the  English  throne  in, 
1509.  He  was  a  learned  and  accomplished 
prince,  but  imperious  and  cruel.  Henry  vill. 

155.  How  many  wives  had  Henry  VIII.,  and  what  was  their 
fate?—Ue  married  six  wives  in  succession.  His  frst  wiie 
was  Catharine  of  Aragon,  widow  of  his  deceased  brother 
Prince  Arthur,  whom  he  divorced ;  his  second  was  Anne 
Boleyn,  whom  he  caused  to  be  beheaded  ;  his  third  wcls  Lady 
Jane  Seymour,  who  died  in  giving  birth  to  a  prince;  his 
fourth  was  Anne  of  Cleves,  whom  he  divorced  ;  his  fifth  was 
Catharine  Howard,  whom  he  caused  to  be  beheaded  ;  and  his 
sixth  was  Lady  Catharine  Parr,  who  had  the  good-fortune 
neither  to  be  divorced  nor  beheaded  by  Henry,  and  survived 
him. 


m 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


1 


328 


BRITISH  HISTORY, 


156.  What  children  had  Henry  VIII.  ? — He  had  three  chil. 
dren — Mary,  a  daughter  of  Catharine  of  Aragon  ;  EHzabeth, 
a  daughter  of  Anne  Boleyn  ;  and  Edward,  a  son  of  Lady  Jane 
Seymour. 

157.  What  title  was  conferred  on  Henry  VIII.  by  the  pop e? — 
The  title  of "  Defender  of  the  Faith"  was  conferred  on  him 
by  Pope  Leo  X.,  as  a  reward  for  writing  against  Martin 
Luther,  1521. 

158.  Who  was  Cardinal  Wolsey  ? — He  was  an  eminent  eccle- 
siastic and  able  statesman,  who  for  a  time  possessed  the 
confidence  of  Henry  VHL;  but  refusing  to  sanction  the 
king's  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn,  he  was  degraded  from 
office,  and  accused  of  treason  ;  in  distress  of  mind  Wolsey 
died,  1530. 

159.  What  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  Reformation  in 
England? — It  was  a  quarrel  between  Henry  VHL  and  the 
pope. 

160.  Explain  the  cause  of  this  moDtentous  quarrel. — Henry, 
having  divorced  his  first  wife,  Catharine  of  Aragon,  and 
married  Anne  Boleyn,  the  pope  declared  this  second  mar- 
riage to  be  unlawful, and  at  length  excommunicated  Henry  for 
contumacy  ;  thereupon  Henry  threw  off  the  papal  power,  and 
with  the  assent  of  parliament  became  supreme  head  of  the 
Church  of  England,  1534. 

161.  Who  was  Sir  Thomas  More? — He  was  an  eminent  law- 
yer, appointed  Lord  Chancellor  of  England  on  the  fall  of 
Wolsey.  As  he  could  not  be  prevailed  upon  by  Henry  VIH. 
to  declare  that  his  marriage  with  Anne  Bolyen  had  been 
lawful,  he  was,  by  a  flagrant  act  of  injustice,  arraigned,  tried 
and  condemned  at  Westminster,  and  was  beheaded,  1535. 

162.  When  were  the  monasteries  abolished  in  England? — 
From  1535  to  1537;  in  this  last  year,  the  English  translation 
of  the  Bible  was  ordered  to  be  used  in  public  worship.  Henry 
had  now  assumed  the  supremacy  of  the  church. 

163.  What  have  these  events  been  designated? — They  are 
called  "  the  Reformation,"  which  marked  an  important  era  in 
English  history. 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302. 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y.  329 

164.  What  was  a  leading  feature  of  the  Reformation  in  Eng^ 
land? — It  left  the  organization  of  the  church  much  as  it  had 
been  previously,  and  was  mainly  a  change  of  certain  doc- 
trines and  usages,  along  with  a  repudiation  of  papal  autho- 
rity. 

165.  When  was  the  Reformation  effected  in  Ireland? — It  was 
effected  in  1 535,  when  Henry  VIII.  caused  the  Irish  parliament 
to  pass  an  act  establishing  his  supremacy,  The  people  of 
Ireland,  however,  did  not  generally  adopt  the  reformed  doc- 
trines. 

166.  When  was  Ireland  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom  ? — 
It  was  raised  to  that  dignity  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1540,  when 
he  adopted  the  title  of  King  in  place  of  Lord  of  Ireland,  and 
conferred  peerages  on  various  native  chiefs,  who  did  homage 
as  feudal  vassals  to  the  English  crown. 

167.  What  was  the  condition  of  England  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII .  ? — There  was  much  poverty,  crime,  and  violence ; 
more  particularly  after  the  dissolution  of  the  religious  houses 
and  the  dispersal  of  their  inmates.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,  extending  to  38  years,  73,000  criminals  are  said  to  have 
been  executed  in  England. 

168.  When  did  Henry  VIII.  die? — He  died  in  1547,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Edward  VI. 

169.  Who  compiled  the  Book  of  common  Prayer  of  the  Church 
of  Engla7id? — It  was  compiled  chiefly  by  Thomas  Cranmer, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Hugh  Latimer,  and  other  emin- 
ent ecclesiastics,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 

170.  Who  was  the  Protector  Somerset? — He  was  duke  of 
Somerset,  who  acted  as  supreme  ruler  on  account  of  the 
youth  of  Edward  VI. 

171.  When  did  Edward  VI.  die? — He  died  in  1553,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  elder  half-sister,  Mary,  under  whom  the 
papal  authority  was  restored,  and  Latimer,  Ridley,  and  Cran- 
mer were  burned  as  heretics,  the  two  former  in  iS55.  and  the 
latter  in  1556.     Mary  died,  1558. 

172.  Who  was  Queen  Elizabeth? — She  was  half-sister  of 
Edward  VI.  and  Mary,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1558. 
Elizabeth   restored  the  Reformed  Church  of  England,  and 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


330 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y. 


became  its  most  zealous  protector ;  and  under  her  the  country 
made  great  advances  in  commerce,  arts,  and  learning.  Shakes- 
peare, the  great  English  poet  and  dramatist,  lived  in  her 
reign.  Elizabeth  was  personally  vain  and  capricious ;  but 
she  was  high-spirited,  sagacious,  and  more  patriotic  than 
any  princess  of  her  age.     She  lived  unmarried. 

173.  Who  was  Lord  Burleigh  ? — William  Cecil  Lord  Bur- 
leigh was  minister  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  the  greatest 
statesman  of  his  age.  To  him  the  glory  of  Elizabeth's  reign 
was  in  a  great  measure  due. 

174.  What  maritime  enterprises  took  place  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth? — Under  Drake,  Cavendish,  Raleigh,  and  Frob- 
isher,  various  expeditions  were  conducted,  and  discoveries 
made.  Now  were  commenced  the  English  colonies  in  North 
America:  one  of  these  being  called  Virginia,  in  compliment 
to  the  queen. 

175.  When  was  Tobacco  first  brought  to  England? — It  was 
brought  by  Sir  John  Hawkins  in  1565,  but  for  some  years  it 
was  exported,  and  not  used  in  the  country;  it  was  first  intro- 
duced to  use  in  England  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1586. 

176.  What  was  the  Spanish  Armada  ? — It  was  a  fleet  of  war- 
vessels  sent  by  Spain  to  conquer  England,  and  bring  it  back 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  Partly  by  the  gallantry  of 
the  English  fleets,  and  partly  by  tempests,  the  Armada  was 
destroyed  and  scattered,  1588. 

177.  When  was  the  first  Poor-law  enacted  in  England? — In 
1535,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. ;  but  the  law  was  greatly 
amended  in  1601,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  this  latter 
new  enactment  of  1601  is  usually  spoken  of  as  the  origin  of 
the  English  poor-laws. 

178.  Did  Elizabeth  concern  herself  about  affairs  in  Scotland? 
• — Yes ;  she  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  affairs  of  Scotland, 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  sovereign  of  that  country 
was  the  nearest  heir  to  the  English  crown  ;  Elizabeth  having 
been  declared  illegitimate  by  the  pope,  she  entertained  a 
jealousy  of  the  claims  of  her  relative  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 

179.  I/07V  did  the  relationship  of  the  Scottish  and  English 
royal  families  originate?— \\.  originated   in  Margaret  Tudor, 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779.— See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133, 


BRITISH  HI  ST  OR  V. 


331 


eldest  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  and  sister  of  Henry  VIII., 
marrying  James  IV.,  king  of  Scots.  Their  eldest  son  was 
James  V.,  born  in  1512. 

180.  Did  this  alliance  of  the  English  and  Scottish  royal 
families  secure  peace  between  the  two  countries? — No;  James 
IV.,  a  chivalrous  but  rash  king,  quarrelled  with  his  brother- 
in-law,  Henry  VIII.,  and  declaring  war  against  him,  marched 
with  a  great  army  to  England,  and  fought  the  battle  of 
Flodden. 

181.  When  was  the  battle  of  Flodden  fought  ? — It  was  fought 
on  the  9th  of  September,  15 13,  when  the  English  were  victo- 
rious. James  IV.  was  killed,  and  a  vast  number  of  his  Scot- 
tish army  were  also  slain.  This  disastrous  event  is  the  sub- 
ject of  various  mournful  Scottish  ballads. 

1 82.  How  was  thegovef  nment  of  Scotland  conducted  during  the 
minority  of  Jaines  V.  ?—\\,  was  conducted  by  various  Regents, 
who  were  unable  to  prevent  disorders,  and  the  country  was 
for  years  in  a  very  disturbed  state. 

1 83.  Whom  did  Margaret  Tudor,  widow  of  James  I V.,  marry  ? 
—She  married,  for  second  husband,  Archibald  Douglas,  sixth 
Earl  of  Angus,  by  whom  she  had  an  only  daughter,  Margaret 
Douglas,  who  married  Matthew  Stuart,  fourth  Earl  of  Len- 
nox ;  which  Earl  of  Lennox  had  two  sons,  Henry  Stuart 
Lord  Darnley,  and  Charles  Stuart,  who  became  fifth  Earl  of 
Lennox,  and  was  father  of  Lady  Arabella  Stuart. 

184.  Who  was  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  ? — She  was  daughter  of 
James  V.,  and  was  born  in  1542,  only  seven  days  before  the 
death  of  her  father. 

185.  What  was  the  project  of  the  Protector  So?)terset  respect- 
ing the  infant  Mary  Queen  of  5<;^/j.^— -It  was  to  marry  her  to 
Edward  VI.,  and  thereby  effect  a  union  of  the  English  and 
Scottish  crowns. 

186.  Did  the  Scots  fall  in  with  this  project?— "^o;  they 
rejected  the  alliance  chiefly  on  the  ground  that  the  English 
had  ceased  to  be  a  Roman  Catholic  nation  ;  whereupon, 
Somerset  invaded  Scotland  with  an  army  to  compel  the 
proposed  union  ;  the  result  was  the  battle  of  Pinkie. 

187.  When  was  the  battle  of  Pinkie  fought? — It  was  fought 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65. 


332 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


in  1547,  when  the  Scots  were  vanquished;  they,  however, 
saved  their  young  queen  by  sending  her  to  France  to  be 
educated. 

1 88.  What  was  the  connection  between  Scotland  and  France  f 
— It  was  an  old  connection  arising  partly  from  intermar- 
riages between  the  royal  families  ;  but  was  chiefly  main- 
tained as  a  political  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  against 
England. 

189.  How  was  the  reformation  effected  in  Scotland? — It  was 
effected  by  a  sudden  public  paroxysm,  for  which  various 
causes  conspired — certain  scandalous  abuses  in  the  church, 
the  preaching  of  John  Knox  and  others,  the  satirical  effusions 
of  Sir  David  Lindsay,  and  the  rapacious  desire  of  the  nobility 
or  "  Lords  of  the  Congregation,"  to  possess  themselves  of  the 
church  lands  and  endowments. 

190.  Who  was  John  Knox? — He  was  a  Scotchman,  who 
was  educated  as  a  Roman  Catholic  priest ;  but  having  em- 
braced the  reformed  doctrines,  he  became  their  able  and  in- 
trepid expounder  among  his  countrymen.  He  closed  life  as 
one  of  the  ministers  of  Edinburgh,  1572. 

\c)\.  Who  was  Cardinal  Beaton? — He  was  the  Primate  of 
Scotland  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Reformation  ;  under  his 
authority  many  persons  were  imprisoned  and  executed  for  pro- 
pagating the  Reformed  doctrines — the  most  eminent  of  these 
sufferers  being  George  Wishart,  who  was  burned  at  St.  An- 
drews.    Beaton  was  assassinated,  1546. 

192.  When  was  the  Reformation  in  Scotland  affected? — It  was 
effected  in  1560,  when  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  organization 
was  abolished  by  an  act  of  the  Scots  parliament.  About  the 
same  time,  irregular  mobs  destroyed  the  monasteries  and  ab- 
beys ;  and  deprived  of  means  of  support,  the  reformed  church 
struggled  at  first  under  great  difficulties. 

193.  Whom  did  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  marry? — She  married, 
first,  Francis  II.  of  France,  and  after  his  decease,  on  her  re- 
turn to  Scotland,  she  married  her  second-cousin,  Henry  Stuart 
Lord  Darnley. 

194.  Who  was  David  Rizzio? — He  was  an  accomplished 
foreigner,  a  favorite  at  the  court  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The    Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47. 

t 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y,  333 


and  was  murdered  in  her  presence  by  a  band  of  conspirators 
at  Holyrood,  1566,  a  few  months  before  the  birth  of  her  son. 

195.  When  was  Mary  s  son  born? — Her  son,  James  Stuart, 
was  born  in  the  Castle  of  Edinburgh.  June  19,  1566. 

196.  What  was  thefate of  Dartiley  ? — He  was  murdered  and 
the  house  in  which  he  was  blown  up  by  gunpowder,  1567. 

197.  Who  was  the  third  husba7id  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  f — 
James  Hepburn,  Earl  of  Bothwell,  a  worthless  personage, 
who  was  believed  to  have  been  concerned  in  the  murder  of 
Darnley.  This  scandalous  marriage  produced  a  quarrel  be- 
tween the  queen  and  her  subjects, 

198.  What  was  the  fate  of  Mary  Queen  of  ^'(r^/^  f- -Fleeing 
from  her  subjects,  she  sought  refuge  from  her  relative.  Queen 
Elizabeth,  who,  after  imprisoning  her  for  a  number  of  years, 
caused  her  to  be  beheaded  on  a  charge  of  a  treasonous  con- 
spiracy, 1587.  This  cruel  act  remains  a  grievous  blot  on  the 
memory  of  Elizabeth. 

199.  Who  succeeded  Mary  as  sovereign  in  Scotland? — Her 
son,  who,  while  still  a  youth,  ascended  the  throne  as  James 
VI. 

200.  Who  was  the  Regent  Murray  ? — He  was  James  Stuart, 
Earl  of  Murray,  half-brother  of  Mary,  who  acted  for  a  time  as 
Regent  during  the  minority  of  James  VI.  Murray  was  an 
able  statesman,  and  took  considerable  part  in  promoting  the 
Reformation  in  Scotland.     He  was  assassinated  in  1570. 

201.  What  was  the  condition  of  Scotland  during  the  early 
fart  of  James" s  reign  ? — It  was  a  condition  of  constant  dis- 
turbances, fights,  and  slaughters,  the  king  being  incapable  of 
maintaining  the  authority  of  the  law. 

202.  Whom  did  James  VI.  marry  ? — The  princess  Anne  of 
Denmark,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  Henry  and  Charles,  and 
a  daughter,  Elizabeth 

203.  When  was  New-year's  Day  changed  in  Scotland? — By  an 
act  of  parliament,  it  was  changed  from  the  25th  of  March  to 
the  ist  of  January;  this  change  took  place  on  the  ist  of 
January,  1600.  For  long  afterwards,  the  25th  of  March  con- 
tinued to  be  the  New-year's  Day,  legally,  in  England. 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


334 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y, 


204.  When  did  James  VI.  accede  to  the  English  throne? — On 
the  death  of  EHzabeth,  the  last  of  the  Tudors,  in  1603,  vvlieii 
he  assumed  the  title  of  James  I.  of  England,  and  left  Scotland 
with  his  family  to  reside  at  Westminster.  Thus  the  Stuart 
dynasty  was  begun  in  England. 

205.  What  has  the  accession  of  Jatnes  VI.  to  the  English  thront 
been  usually  called f — It  is  known  in  history  as  the  Union  of 
THE  Crowns. 


BRITISH  HISTORY,  FROM  1603  UNTIL  1714. 

1.  When  was  the  term  "  Great  Britain"  introduced? — It  was 
introduced  in  1604,  when  James  I.  was  styled  "  King  of  Great 
Britain." 

2.  How  was  Scotland  governed  after  the  Union  of  the  Crowns  ? 
—  It  was  governed  by  certain  state-officers  appointed  by  James 
I.,  along  with  the  Scots  parliament. 

3.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  Scots  parliament  ? — It  com- 
prehended lords  and  commons  (also  ecclesiastical  dignitaries 
before  the  Reformation,  and  during  Episcopacy  in  Scotland) 
who* all  sat  and  deliberated  together  ;  its  place  of  meeting 
was  latterly  a  hall  in  Edinburgh,  called  the  Parliament 
House. 

4.  What  was  the  "  Gunpowder  Plot." — It  was  a  conspirac)) 
to  blow  up  the  Houses  of  Parliament  at  Westminster  by  gun- 
powder, November  5,  1605.  Guy  Fawkes  and  other  conspir- 
ators were  seized,  condemned  and  executed. 

5.  Who  were  the  Puritans? — They  were  a  religious  party 
who  came  into  notice  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth;  rejecting  ec- 
clesiastical traditions  and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  they 
professed  to  be  guided  alone  by  the  Scriptures,  and  to  main- 
tain great  purity  in  life  and  doctrine — hence  the  name  which 
was  attached  to  them.  The  party  rose  to  importance  in  the 
reign  of  James  I. 

6.  Did  the  principles  of  the  Puritans  extend  to  Scotland?— 
Similar  principles  affected  Scotland  ;  and  there  took  a  much 
more  permanent  hold  than  in  England. 


n 


CrcEsus,   a   King  in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  ^A/^ealth. — See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


335 


7.  What  was  the  character  of  James  IJ — It  was  that  of  a 
weak  and  vain  man,  and,  above  all,  he  possessed  an  inordin- 
ate idea  of  his  royal  prerogative  or  rights  as  a  sovereign. 

8.  What  were  James  s  notions  of  church-polity? — He  held 
firmly  to  the  episcopal  system  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
England,  and  endeavored  to  miroduce  a  similar  organization 
into  Scotland — an  attempt  which  proved  the  forerunner  of 
many  troubles. 

9.  When  was  the  Authorised  Version  of  the  Bible  effected? — 
It  was  executed  by  a  body  of  learned  English  divines,  by  order 
of  James  I.,  in  161 1. 

10.  Whom  did  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  /., 
marry? — Frederick,  elector  of  the  Pa/atinate,  a  small  prm- 
cipalityon  the  Rhine,  of  which  Heidelberg  was  the  capital. 
This  marriage  took  place  in  1613,  shortly  after  the  death  of 
Henry,  the  eldest  son  of  James  I. 

1 1 .  What  was  Elizabeth's  history  f — Her  husband  was  elected 
king  of  Bohemia  in  1619,  but  by  a  reverse  of  fortune  he  was 
driven  from  that  country,  and  also  lost  the  Palatinate ; 
Elizabeth,  who  was  now  styled  "  Queen  of  Bohemia,"  was 
reduced  with  her  family  to  great  indigence. 

12.  What  children  had  Elizabeth? — She  had  a  numerous 
family;  her  eldest  son,  Charles-Louis,  lived  to  recover  the 
Palatinate ;  and  another  son,  Rupert,  distinguished  himself 
as  a  soldier.  Her  youngest  daughter,  Sophia,  married 
Ernest-Augustus,  Elector  of  Hanover. 

13.  Who  was  Lady  Arabella  Stuart? — She  was  a  daughter 
of  the  Earl  of  Lennox,  and,  as  descended  from  Margaret  Tu- 
dor, had  a  claim  to  the  throne  in  default  of  James  I.  and  his 
family. 

14.  How  did  James  treat  Arabella  Stuart  ? — Entertaining  a 
mean  jealousy  of  her  natural  rights,  he  subjected  her  to  a 
series  of  unworthy  persecutions.  Because  she  -chose  to 
marry  contrary  to  his  wish  he  confined  her  in  the  Tower, 
where  she  became  mad,  and  died  161 5. 

15.  Did  the  English  kings  at  this  time  venture  to  oppress  sub' 
jects  ? — They  assumed  the  right  to  commit  many  arbitrary 


CO 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821.— See  page  411. 


336 


BRITISH  HI  ST  OR  Y. 


acts,  in  virtue  of  their  prerogative,  contrary  to  the  principles 
of  Magna  Charta. 

16.  What  was  the  fate  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  ? — He  was  ar-. 
raigned  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  was  beheaded  in  16 18. 

17.  Who  was  Lord  Bacon? — He  was  an  eminent  statesman 
and  philosophical  writer  in  the  reign  of  James  I. ;  but  was 
found  to  be  guilty  of  official  corruption,  and  suffered  a  fine 
of  ^40,000. 

18.  What  was  the  ''Plantation  of  Ulster?" — It  was  a  scheme 
of  James  I.  for  taking  possession  of  the  lands  of  the  Earls 
of  Tyrone  and  Tyrconnel,  in  Ulster,  the  north  of  Ireland — 
;hese  lords  having  been  defeated  in  a  general  rebellion,  1603. 
The  "  Plantation"  consisted  in  parcelling  out  the  lands  among 
English  and  Scottish  settlers,  which  project  was  carried 
out  with  military  violence,  1608,  and  Ulster,  with  Belfast  as 
Its  capital,  has  ever  since  been  noted  for  its  Protestant 
community. 

19.  When  were  Baronets  first  created? — Baronets  were  finst 
created  by  James  I.  in  161 1,  the  distinction  being  offered  as  an 
inducement  to  render  aid  in  the  Plantation  of  Ulster;  but 
practically,  the  distinction  was  purchased  by  persons  in  the 
rank  of  gentlemen  for;^i,ooo.  There  was  subsequently,  1625, 
a  creation  of  Nova  Scotia  Baronets,  on  more  moderate  terms. 
In  latter  times,  baronetcies  have  been  granted  only  for 
important  public  services. 

20.  When  did  James  I.  die? — He  died  in  1625, and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  surviving  son,  Charles  I.,  who,  though  possess- 
ing many  excellent  qualities,  unfortunately  entertained  still 
higher  notions  of  the  royal  prerogative  than  his  father, 
which  soon  led  to  a  collision  between  him  and  his  English 
and  Scottish  subjects. 

21.  Who  was  Buckingham? — George  Villiers,  Duke  of 
Buckingham,  was  an  unworthy  favorite  and  parasite  of 
James  L,  whom  he  in  various  ways  deceived.  Buckingham 
was  assassinated  by  Felton,  a  retired  subaltern  officer,  1628. 

22.  How  did  Charles  I.  come  into  collision  with  parliament? 
—Charles  having  given  deep  offence  by  his  arbitrary  and 
illegal  measures,  parliament  refused  to  vote  supphes  (money 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


BRITISH  HISTORY,  23? 

to  carr)''  on  public  affairs),  whereupon  the  king  proceeded 
to  levy  taxes  at  his  own  will. 

23.  What  was  shzp-jnoney  ? — It  was  a  tax  arbitrarily  imposed 
to  support  the  navy  by  Charles  I.  in  1634.  With  some  sim- 
ilar measures,  it  caused  great  public  resentment,  and  placed 
the  king  in  still  greater  antagonism  to  parliament. 

24.  Who  were  the  Fifth  Monarchy  Men  ? — They  were  a  body 
of  religious  enthusiasts  in  England,  who  came  prominently 
into  notice  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  Reckoning  that  there 
had  been  four  great  monarchies  in  the  world — The  Assyrian, 
Persian,  Graeco-Macedonian,  and  Roman— they  believed  that 
there  was  to  be  a  Fifth  monarchy,  in  which  Christ  was  to  be 
king.  This  monarchy,  which  was  to  last  a  millennium,  or  a 
thousand  years,  was  thought  to  be  at  hand  in  1645. 

25.  Who  were  the  Independents  ? — They  were  a  numerous  re- 
ligious body  in  England,  who  came  into  existence  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  afterwards  played  a  prominent  part 
in  the  great  Civil  War.  They  derived  their  name  from  the 
principle  which  they  advocated,  that  each  congregation  should 
regulate  its  own  affairs,  and  be  independent  alike  of  bishops 
or  presbyteries. 

26.  Who  were  the  Presbyterians? — They  were  a  religious 
ho^j,  comprising  nearly  the  whole  Scottish  nation  and  a  sec- 
tion of  the  English,  who  held  that  all  ministers  or  "  preaching" 
elders  should  be  of  equal  rank,  and  that  the  church  ought  tc 
be  governed  by  these,  assisted  by  a  certain  class  of  lay-elders. 

27.  What  were  the  Nonconformists? — They  were  puritans 
of  various  sects— Independents,  Presbyterians,  and  others — 
who  would  not  conform  to  the  Church  of  England,  and  were 
subjected  to  the  operation  of  severe  laws  against  Noncon- 
formity, in  the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 

28.  Who  were  the  "Pilgrim  Fathers?" — They  were  a  body 
of  English  Nonconformists  who  had  fled  from  persecution  in 
the  reign  of  James  I.  to  Holland,  and  there,  after  some  years, 
resolved  to  emigrate  to  an  English  settlement  in  North 
America. 

29.  State  some  facts  concerning  their  emigration? — They 
came  from  Holland  to  England,  and  with  some  difficulty  em' 

15 


The   Earth's      Surface     is     aoo,ooo,ooo     Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  i503.~See  page  i8i. 


338  BRI TISH  HIS  TOR  Y. 

barked  in  a  small  vessel  called  the  Mayflower,  v/bich  reached 
Cape  Cod,  Massachusetts.  Having  explored  the  neighbor- 
ing shores,  the  party,  102  in  number,  landed  at  a  place  after- 
wards named  new  Plj^mouth,  December  11,  1620,  and  there 
they  began  their  settlement. 

30.  What  measures  did  Charles  I.  pursue  respecting  the 
church  in  Scotland? — Contrary  to  the  feelings  of  the  people, 
who  preferred  Presbyterianism,  he  intruded  bishops  on  the 
church,  and  also  a  liturgy  or  service-book — his  reason  for 
doing  so,  being  the  fancy  that  episcopacy  alone  was  compati- 
ble with  a  monarchical  system  of  government. 

31.  How  were  these  measures  received  ?- -The  people  broke 
out  into  a  tumult  in  one  of  the  churches  of  Edinburg,  on 
Sunday,  July  23,  1637,  and  the  Service-book  was  withdrawn. 

32.  JVhat  was  the  national  Covenant? — It  was  a  publicly- 
subscribed  declaration,  in  which  the  Scots  engaged  to  stand 
by  each  other,  in  opposition  to  the  projects  of  Charles  I. 
The  date  of  this  event  was  1638,  and  the  immediate  result  was 
the  abolition  of  Episcopacy,  and  the  re-establishment  of  Pres- 
byterianism in  Scotland. 

33.  Who  were  the  Covenanters? — This  term  was  applied  first 
to  those  who  adhered  to  the  National  Covenant;  but  as  there 
were  subsequent  Covenants,  so  w^ere  there  different  bodies  of 
Covenanters,  extended  over  a  period  of  fifty  years. 

34.  Who  were  the  Cavaliers? — The  term  Cavalier  party 
was  applied  to  those  who  adhered  to  the  royal  cause  and 
usages  of  the  Church  of  England,  in  opposition  to  the 
"Roundheads,"  consisting  of  Independents  and  others  who 
adhered  to  the  parliament. 

35.  Who  was  Strafford? — Sir  Thomas  Wentworth,  created 
Earl  of  Strafford,  was  an  able  but  haughty  and  imperious 
statesman,  who,  as  minister  to  Charles  L,  counselled  those 
strong  and  illegal  measures  which  led  to  the  king's  ruin. 
Parliament  having  gained  the  ascendency,  passed  a  bill  of 
attainder  against  Strafford,  who  was  beheaded  1641. 

36.  What  was  the  Star-Chamber? — It  was  a  court  instituted 
by  Henry  VII.,  consisting  of  a  committee  of  the  king's  privy- 
council,  held  in  an  apartment  at  Westminster ;  it  is  ordinarily 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was    the    Food    of  the   Gods — See  page   248. 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y,  3  ^9 

said  that  the  name  was  taken  from  stars  in  the  roof  of  the 
chamber ;  but  the  correctness  of  this  supposition  is 
doubtful. 

37.  How  did  the  Court  of  Star-chamber  act? — Holding  itself 
to  be  unfettered  by  rules  of  law,  and  responding  to  the  ex- 
treme principles  of  the  royal  prerogative,  it  acted  in  a  most 
arbitrary  and  oppressive  manner.  Having  been  employed  by 
James  I.  and  Charles  I.  to  stem  the  progress  of  civil  and  re- 
ligious liberty  the  Star-chamber  was  abolished  as  an  intoler- 
able grievance  in  1 641. 

38.  What  was  the  court  of  high  commission  f — It  was  an  ec- 
clesiastical court  instituted  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  which  was 
composed  of  forty-four  commissioners,  twelve  of  whom  were 
clergymen;  its  jurisdiction  extended  over  all  England,  and 
took  cognizance  of,  and  regulated  all  religious  opinions,  and 
latterly,  by  torture,  fines,  and  imprisonment,  endeavored  to 
force  uniformity  to  the  Established  Church;  it  was  abolished 
in  1641. 

39.  When  did  the  great  Civil  War  break  out? — It  broke  out 
in  1642 ;  the  opposing  forces  being  the  royal  or  cavalier  troops 
under  Charles  I.  and  his  nephew,  Prince  Rupert,  and  the 
parliamentary  army,  chiefly  Independents  and  Presbyterians 
commanded  at  first  by  the  Earl  of  Essex. 

40.  Who  was  Oliver  Cromwell? — He  was  an  English  gentle- 
man of  small  fortune,  who,  by  his  sagacity  and  his  abilities 
as  a  military  disciplinarian  rose  to  be  commander  of  the  par- 
liamentary forces,  to  whose  affection  he  recommended  him- 
self by  his  religious  zeal  as  an  Independent. 

41.  Who  was  John  Hampden? — He  was  a  patriotic  English 
gentleman,  who  had  been  subjected  to  persecution  for  not 
paying  ship-money.  On  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  he  took 
the  side  of  the  parliament,  but  he  was  wounded  in  an  engage- 
ment with  the  royal  troops,  and  died  six  days  afterwards, 
1643.  To  Hampden  has  been  assigned  the  highest  ranic  among 
English  patriots. 

42.  What  was  the  assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster  ? — 
It  was  a  meeting  held  under  the  authority  of  parliament  in 
1643,  at  which  delegates  from  England  and  Scotland  adopted 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


340 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


the  "  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,"  fixed  on  the  establish* 
ment  of  Presbyterian  church-government  in  the  three  king- 
doms, and  drew  up  a  general  Confession  of  Faith,  a  "  Direc- 
tory of  Public  Worship,"  also  the  well-known  "  Larger"  and 
"  Shorter  Catechism."  According  to  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant,  Episcopacy  was  to  be  extirpated,  and  for  a  time, 
accordingly,  it  was  not  even  tolerated  in  subordination  to  the 
Presbyterian  system. 

43.  Who  was  Laud? — William  Laud  was  an  ecclesiastic,  who 
rose  to  be  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
L,  in  which  position  he  aided  the  king  in  his  attempt  to  force 
Episcopacy  on  Scotland.  Laud's  arbitrary,  illegal,  and  cruel 
acts  led  to  a  bill  of  attainder  being  passed  by  parliament,  de- 
claring him  guilty  of  high  treason,  and  he  was  beheaded, 
January,  1644 — 1645. 

44.  Who  was  the  Marquis  of  Montrose? — James  Graham, 
Marquis  of  Montrose,  was  an  eminent  Scottish  general  who 
adopted  the  royal  cause  and  gained  several  victories  over  the 
Covenanters.  At  length,  he  was  defeated  at  Philiphaugh, 
1645,  ^"d  was  ultimately  captured  and  executed  at  Edin- 
burgh, 1650. 

45.  What  were  the  chief  battles  in  England  during  the  Civil 
War? — The  battle  of  Edge  Hill  in  1642,  which  was  indeci- 
sive ;  tne  battle  of  Marston  Moor,  in  1644,  gained  by  the  par- 
liamentary forces ;  and  the  battle  of  Naseby  in  1645,  ^^so 
gained  by  the  parliamentary  forces,  by  which  the  royal  cause 
was  irretrievably  lost. 

46.  What  was  the  fate  of  Charles  I.  ? — He  sought  the  pro- 
tection of  a  Scots  army,  who  gave  him  up  to  the  English  on 
paying  a  large  sum  of  money  (^400,000)  claimed  as  arrears. 
The  unfortunate  king  was  some  time  in  confinement  at  Caris- 
brook  Castle,  Isle  of  Wight ;  at  last  he  was  tried  and  con- 
demned for  levying  war  against  the  people,  and  was  be- 
headed at  Whitehall,  January  30,  1648 — 1649. 

47.  Who  were  the  surviving  children  of  Charles  I.  ? — Charles, 
Prince  of  Wales  ;  James,  Duke  of  York  ;  Henry,  who  died 
unmarried;  Mary,  who  married  William  H.,  Prince  of 
Orange,  and  whose  son  became  William  HL  of  England; 


The   Bastile   was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


BRITISH  HISTORY.  341 

Elizabeth,  who   died    of    grief  in  prison ;    and    Henrietta^ 
Maria,  who  married  Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans. 

48.  What  was  the  Com?nonwealth}~liv72iS  the  government 
established  on  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  and  abolition  of 
monarchy,  early  in  1649.  Nominally,  it  was  a  republic,  at  the 
head  of  which  was  Oliver  Cromwell,  assisted  by  a  council. 
The  Commonwealth,  however,  was  in  reality  a  military  des- 
potism, with  Cromwell  as  Dictator. 

49.  Did  the  Scots  accept  the  Commonwealth? — No;  they  set 
up  Charles  Prince  of  Wales  as  Charles  II.  and  took  the  field 
in  the  cause  of  monarchy,  but  were  completely  defeated  by 
Cromwell  at  Dunbar,  September  3,  1650.  Exactly  a  year  af- 
terwards, Charles  II.  was  defeated  at  Worcester,  and  for 
safety  retired  to  the  Continent. 

50.  Did  the  Irish  accept  the  Commonwealth  ? — No  ;  but  they 
were  forced  to  submit  to  it  by  Cromwell,  who  in  1649  landed 
in  Ireland  with  a  large  army,  and  by  his  severities  struck  ter- 
ror into  the  nation.  Many  of  the  fine  monuments  of  antiquity 
in  Ireland  were  at  this  time  laid  in  ruin. 

51.  What  was  the  long  parliament  ? — It  was  the  parliament 
which  began  its  sittings  in  1640,  and  carried  on  the  contest 
against  Charles  I.  It  continued  to  exist  twelve  years,  and 
would  have  continued  longer,  but  Cromwell,  with  a  body  of 
soldiers,  abruptly  turned  out  all  the  members,  locked  the' 
door,  and  put  the  key  in  his  pocket,  20th  April,  1653.  The 
Council  of  State  now  appointed  Cromwell  Lord  Protector. 

52.  What  was  the  "  Barebones  Parliament  f — It  was  a  par- 
liament called  together  by  Cromwell,  composed  partly  of  in- 
dividuals remarkable  for  ignorance  and  fanaticism  ;  gaining 
no  public  respect,  it  was  soon  dissolved.  It  was  denomina- 
ted t\\Q  Barebones  Parliament  from  the  name  of  one  of  the 
members,  a  leather-seller,  who  was  named  Praise-God  Bare- 
bones. 

53.  Who  were  Van  Tromp,  De  Ruyter,  and De  Wift  ? — They 
were  Dutch  naval  commanders,  who,  in  1652,  in  a  war  between 
Holland  and  Great  Britain,  committed  great  havoc  on  En- 
glish shipping.  At  length,  some  successes  by  Admiral  Blake 
caused  the  Dutch  to  sue  for  peace. 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


342 


BRITISH  HISTGR  V. 


54.  When  was  Jamaica  acquired  by  Britain  ? — It  was  cap* 
tured  by  a  British  fleet  from  the  Spaniards  during  the  Pro- 
tectorate of  Cromwell,  1655,  and  was  formally  ceded  1670. 

55.  How  long  did  Cromwell  occupy  the  position  of  Protector  f 
—About  five  years,  until  his  death  in  1658,  during  which  time 
he  with  a  strong  hand  maintained  the  honor  of  England,  ex- 
tended commerce,  and  preserved  internal  peace. 

56.  Who  succeeded  Oliver  Cromwell? — His  son  Richard; 
but  he  remained  in  power  only  a  short  period,  and  gladly  re- 
tired to  private  life. 

57.  How  was  the  government  conducted  after  Richard  Crom- 
vuell retired? — It  was  imperfectly  carried  on  by  a  wretched 
remnant  of  parliament ;  and  the  people  found  that  all  their 
efforts  in  the  cause  of  liberty  had  ended  in  a  government  of 
unscrupulous  adventurers,  whose  only  ruling  principle  was 
violence. 

58.  WItat  was  the  "  Restoration  ?" — It  was  the  restoring  'of 
the  monarchy,  which  was  effected  by  the  army  under  General 
Monk  ;  in  the  midst  of  universal  rejoicing,  Charles  II.  was 
proclaimed  king  at  Westminster,  May  8,  1660— a  notable 
event  in  British  history. 

59.  In  restoring  monarchy,  did  the  nation  exact  any  security 
(or  their  liberties  froin  Charles  II.  ? — No  ;  this  they  neglected 
to  do,  in  their  thankfulness  to  get  back  a  settled  and  respect- 
able form  of  government. 

60.  When  did  Elizabeth  Stuart,  ex-Queen  of  Bohemia,  die  ? — 
She  died  October  13,  1662,  in  the  hospitable  mansion  of  Lord 
Craven,  London,  where  she  had  lived  for  about  a  year  on  re- 
turning from  the  continent.  The  house  in  which  she  died 
had  formerly  belonged  to  Sir  Robert  Drury,  and  from  it  origi- 
nated the  name  "  Drury  Lane." 

61.  When  was  the  great  plague  of  London  ? — In  1665,  when 
large  numbers — some  say  as  many  as  100,000 — died. 

62.  When  was  the  Great  Fire  of  London  ? — September 
2,  1666,  when  a  large  part  of  the  city  was  destroyed,  including 
St.  Paul's.  The  present  St.  Paul's  cathedral  was  soon  after- 
wards built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815 See   page    368. 


c/3 


BRITISH  HISTORY, 


343 


63.  Was  th  e  Church  of  England  reinstated  at  the  Restoration  ? 
—Yes;  the  religious  paroxysm  which  broke  out  in  a  variety 
of  sects  was  exhausted  in  England,  and  the  transactions  of 
the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster,  which  had  met  in 
1643,  were  repudiated. 

64.  What  was  the  state  of  affairs  in  Scotland  after  the  Res- 
toration?— The  people  anticipated  the  full  restoration  of 
Presbyterianism  ;  but  Charles  II.  caused  an  Episcopacy 
(without  the  liturgy)  to  be  established  in  1662 ;  certain  tests 
or  oaths  were  also  imposed  ;  whereupon  there  was  a  renewal 
of  Covenants,  and  sundry  insurrections. 

65.  What  was  the  era  of  the  "Persecution"  in  Scotland? — 
it  extended  from  1664  till  about  1687,  having  exceeded  the 
life  of  Charles  II. 

66.  Who  was  Titus  Oates? — He  was  a  person  of  infamous 
character,  who  taking  advantage  of  public  credulity,  began  in 
1678  to  give  information  concerning  a  pretended  Popish  plot 
to  destroy  the  king  and  Protestant  religion;  through  his 
false  accusations  many  innocent  persons  were  imprisoned, 
and  several  executed.  The  treachery  of  Oates  was  afterwards 
discovered,  and  as  a  punishment,  he  was  fined,  whipped,  and 
set  in  the  pillory. 

67.  What  was  the  "Habeas  Co^^pus  Act  ?" — It  was  an  act  of 
the  English  parliament  passed  in  1679,  limiting  the  time  be- 
tween the  apprehension  of  a  supposed  criminal  and  his  trial ; 
in  virtue  of  which  act  alleged  criminals  can  apply  by  writ  of 
Habeas  Corpus  to  have  it  determined  whether  their  commit- 
tal be  just.  The  term  Habeas  Corpus  signifies  have  the  body 
(or  person)  of. 

68.  Was  not  the  principle  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  embodied 
in  Magna  Charta  .?— It  was  ;  the  act  of  1679,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.,  only    ratified  the  procedure  under  the  old  law. 

69.  Does  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  extend  to  Scotland? — It  does 
in  principle,  under  a  different  name.  Over  the  whole  British 
dominions,  the  great  principle  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  ex- 
tends, and  forms  a  shield  against  lengthened  imprisonment 
before  trial. 

70.  Who  was  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  ? — He  was  an  illegiti- 


h  L t 

The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


f 


244  BRITISH  HISTORY. 

mate  son  of  Charles  II.,  who  was  employed  as  a  general  o! 
the  royal  forces  in  Scotland  to  suppress  the  Covenanters,  and 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  Bothwell  Bridge,  1679,  when  the 
insurgents  were  routed. 

71.  Who  were  the  Cameronians? — They  were  a  party  oi 
Scottish  Covenanters,  and  took  their  name  from  Richard 
Cameron,  one  of  their  ministers,  who  was  killed  in  a  skir- 
mish in  1680. 

72.  Who  was  George  Fox? — He  was  a  person  in  humble 
life  in  England,  who  became  affected  with  religious  enthu- 
siasm during  the  civil  wars,  and  originated  the  sect  known 
as  "  Quakers,"  or,  as  they  designate  themselves,  "  Friends." 

73.  Were  the  Quakers  persecuted? — Yes:  they  suffered  much 
persecution,  and  many  were  ignominiously  transported  to 
Massachusetts,  where  they  were  treated  with  unjustifiable  se- 
verity by  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  and  other  settlers. 

74.  Having  fi^.d  from  persecutioit,  did  the  Pilgrim  Fathers 
theinselves  persecute? — Yes  ;  in  their  settlement  they  insisted 
on  conformity  with  their  own  forms  of  worship  ;  in  which  re- 
spect they  exercised  precisely  the  same  species  of  oppression 
as  that  from  which  they  had  fled.  They  also  condemned 
many  persons  for  witchcraft,  and  burned  them  at  the 
stake. 

75.  What  was  Witchcraft  ? — It  was  alleged  to  be  a  power 
of  committing  various  acts  of  a  malignant  nature  through  dia- 
bolical assistance ;  those  invested  with  this  supernatural  pow- 
er were  styled  witches. 

76.  Was  witchcraft  an  ancient  superstition? — Yes;  but  a 
belief  in  it  rose  to  be  a  kind  of  frenzy  in  Europe  in  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries,  and  spread  to  the  English 
colonies  in  America.  In  Great  Britain,  the  belief  in  witch- 
craft was  at  its  height  from  the  reign  of  James  I.  to  the  reign 
of  Charles  II. ;  and  for  this  imaginary  crime  many  thou- 
sands of  unfortunate  individuals  were  executed,  chiefly  by 
being  burned  at  the  stake. 

TJ.  Who  were  "  Witch-finders?" — Such  was  the  name  given 
to  a  set  of  wretches  in  England,  headed  by  one  Matthew  Hop- 
kins, who,  at  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  moved 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in   1588. — See   page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long. — See    page    302. 


O 


BRITISH  HISTORY,  345 

from  place  to  place  to  search  for  witches,  and  forced  them  to 
confess  by  various  kinds  of  arbitrary  tortures.  In  Scotland, 
the  principal  witch  prosecutors  were  the  parish  ministers  and 
kirk-sessions,  of  whose  proceedings  history  offers  some  ex-« 
traordinary  accounts. 

78.  What  was  Judicial  Torture  ? — It  was  severe  bodily  pain 
inflicted  by  a  court  of  justice  in  order  to  compel  accused  per- 
sons to  confess  a  knowledge  of  the  crimes  charged  against 
them.  Judicial  torture  was  practised  in  England  until  1558, 
but  was  continued  as  late  as  1690  in  Scotland,  where  squeezing 
the  thumbs  in  a  small  vise,  and  crushing  the  legs  in  a  case 
by  means  of  wedges,  were  the  more  common  kinds  of  inflic- 
tion. 

79.  Who  was  Roger  Williams  f — He  was  a  young  Welsh 
clergyman  belonging  to  the  Church  of  England,  who,  having 
emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in  163 1,  was  persecuted  and  ban- 
ished by  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  for  nonconformity.  He  after- 
wards founded  the  settlement  called  "Rhode  Island," 
and  the  city  of  Providence,  where  all  forms  of  religious  wor- 
ship were  freely  allowed. 

80.  What  honor  has  English  history  assigned  to  Roger  Wit 
liamsf — The  distinguished  honor  of  being  the  first  person  iir 
authority  who  proclaimed  and  reduced  to  practice  the  prin- 
ciple of  perfect  religious  equality  and  toleration.  Williams 
who  was  a  truly  noble  character,  died  at  Providence,  1683. 

81.  Who  was  Willia7n  Penn  ? — He  was  a  son  of  Admiral  Sir 
William  Penn,  a  gentleman  of  property  in  Wiltshire,  and  em- 
braced the  tenets  of  the  Quakers,  which  he  fervently  preached 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  From  this  monarch  he  procured 
a  patent  in  1681,  to  found  a  settlement  in  North  America, 
where  the  Society  of  Friends  might  live  unmolested. 

82.  What  was  Penn's  settlement  called? — It  was  called  Penn- 
sylvania, and  in  it  Penn  founded  the  city  of  Philadelphia  (signi- 
fying Brotherly  love)  as  its  capital,  1682.  The  settlement,  like 
that  of  Roger  Williams,  was  organized  on  principles  of  per- 
fect toleration,  and  is  noted  for  the  honest  manner  in  which 
the  founder  purchased  lands  from  the  natives,  instead  of,  as 
■yas  customary,  taking  them  by  force.     William  Penn  whrt 


O 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278, 


346 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


died  in  1718,  is  one  of  the  most  estimable  characters  in  Eng 
lish  biography. 

83.  What  was  the  Rye-House  Plot? — It  was  said  to  be  a  con' 
spiracy  to  murder  Charles  II.  and  his  brother,  the  Duke   of 
York,  and  place  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  on  the  throne,  1683. 
It  took  its  name  from  the  alleged  place  of  meeting,  the  Rye 
House,  in  Hertfordshire. 

84.  Who  was  Lord  Wz'llzajn  Russell? — He  was  a  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Bedford,  who,  professing  opinions  opposed  to  the 
arbitrary  measures  of  the  government,  was  charged  with  com- 
plicity in  the  Rye-House  Plot ;  he  was  tried  and  condemned, 
xnd  beheaded  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  July  21,  1683. 

85.  Who  was  Algernon  Sydney? — Like  Lord  William  Rus- 
sell, he  was  a  distinguished  patriot,  who  was  tried  and  con- 
demned, and  was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill,  December  8,  1683. 

86.  When  did  Charles  II.  die  ? — He  died  February  6,  1685, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  James,  Duke  of  York,  as 
James  11.  of  England  and  James  VII.  of  Scotland,  in  whose 
reign  things  came  to  a  fresh  crisis,  for  adversity  had  not 
taught  the  Stuarts  moderation. 

87.  What  was  the  chief  fault  found  with  James  II.  ? — It 
was  that  he  seemed  resolved  to  restore  the  papal  power  in 
England,  and  re-establish  Roman  Catholicism  by  an  exercise 
of  absolute  authority. 

88.  What  was  "Passive  Obedience?" — By  "passive  obedi- 
ence" was  meant  an  entire  submission  to  the  will  of  the  king, 
without  regard  to  any  existing  laws.  The  university  of  Oxford 
having  promulgated  an  elaborate  declaration  of  passive  obedi- 
ence to  rulers,  James  II.  was  encouraged  to  pursue  his  un- 
happy career. 

89.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  ? — He 
raised  a  rebellion  against  James  II.,  in  order,  as  he  said,  to 
secure  the  Protestant  religion,  and  to  deliver  the  country 
from  the  tyranny  of  James  II.  In  this  attempt  he  was  de- 
feated and  captured,  and  beheaded  July  15,  1685. 

90.  What  family  had  James  II.  ? — He  was  tWiC*e  married  ; 
by  his  first  marriage  he  had  two  daughters,  Mary  and  Anne; 
und  by  his  second  marriage  a  son,  James,  born  June  10,  1688. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779 See  page  365. 

1 


Humboldt,  the   Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133. 


BRITISH  HISTOR  V. 


347 


91.  JVAo  was  the  Prince  of  Orange? — William  III.,  Prince  o{ 
Orange,  Stadtholder,  or  head  of  the  States  in  Holland,  was  a 
son  of  Mary  Stuart,  daughter  of  Charles  L,  and  had  married 
his  cousin  Mary,  daughter  of  James  II.  As  a  resolute  states- 
man and  Protestant,  he  was  invited  to  come  to  England  and 
conduct  the  government. 

92.  When  did  Jatnes  II.  quit  E nglandf -^Fedirmg  the  fate 
of  his  father,  he  left  England  with  his  wife  and  infant  son 
for  France,  December  23,  1688. 

93.  When  did  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  land  in  England? 
—He  landed  at  Torbay,  November  5,  1688,  and  arrived  at 
St.  James's  on  the  same  day  that  his  father-in-law  quitted 
Whitehall. 

94.  What  parliamentary  proceedings  took  place  on  this  oc ca- 
tion?— The  English  parliament  declared  the  throne  vacant, 
<ind  the  Scots  Convention  of  Estates  resolved  that  James  II. 

-or  James  VII.,  as  he  was  styled  in  Scotland— had  forfeited 
the  crown.  In  England  and  Scotland  William  and  Mary  were 
proclaimed  joint-sovereigns,  1689. 

95.  What  was  the'' Revolution  of  1688  .?"— Such  was  the 
tiame  given  to  the  irregular  change  of  dynasty  in  1688,  ren- 
dered unavoidable  by  the  conduct  of  James  II.,  the  last  of 
the  Stuart  kings, 

96.  What  ensued  in  Scotland  at  the  Revolution .?— The  Con- 
vention of  Estates  was  transformed  into  a  Parliament ;  the 
Episcopacy  of  Charles  II.  was  dis-established ;  and  the 
Presbyterian  form  of  church-government  which  now  exists 
was  established,  1690. 

97.  Who  was  Viscount  Dundee  ?—Ue  was  John  Graham  of 
Claverhouse,  created  Viscount  Dundee  by  James  II.,  and 
as  a  military  commander  had  been  actively  engaged  in  thte 
dismal  war  carried  on  against  the  more  intractable  Covenan- 
ters ;  after  the  Revolution,  he  adhered  to  the  fallen  cause  of 
the  Stuarts. 

98.  What  was  the  battle  of  Killiekrankie?—ltw?iS  a  battle 
fought  by  the  troops  of  William  and  Mary  against  the  forces 
which  were  held  together  in  Scotland  by  Viscount  Dundee 
.n  name  of  James   II. ;  in  the  encounter,  which  took  place 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65. 


O 


348  BRITISH  HISTOR  Y. 

July  27,  1689,  Dundee  fell  by  the  shot  of  a  bullet  in  the  mo 
ment  of  victory  ;  and  shortly  afterwards,  there  was  a  general 
submission  in  Scotland  to  the  Revolution  settlement. 

99.  What  ensued  in  Ireland  at  the  Revolution  ? — The  Irish 
parliament,  and  many  who  were  Roman  Catholics,  adhered 
to  James  II. ;  while  the  Protestant  party  fled  to  London- 
derry and  other  fortified  towns,  where  they  made  a  desperate 
resistance,  until    succored   by  King  William. 

100.  What  was  the  siege  of  Lofidonderry  ? — It  was  a  siege 
endured  by  the  Irish  Protestants  in  the  fortified  city  of  Lon- 
donderry against  the  forces  of  King  James,  1689;  this  fa- 
mous siege  lasted  105  days,  in  which  from  8,000  to  9,000  peo- 
ple perished  by  famine,  disease,  or  the  shot  of  the  enemy. 
Succor  having  arrived,  July  30,  the  siege  was  raised,  and 
the  heroic  garrison  saved. 

1 01.  Did  King  James  personally  aid  his  friends  in  Ire^ 
land?— Yes  ;  he  arrived  from  France  with  a  small  army,  in 
order  to  sustain  his  cause,  in  which,  however,  he  was  unsuc- 
cessful. 

102.  What  was  the  battle  of  the  Boyne? — It  was  a  battle 
fought  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Boyne,  near  Drogheda,  be- 
tween the  forces  of  James  and  William,  July  i,  1690.  Wil- 
liam gained  a  complete  victory.  Shortly  afterwards,  Jamef* 
retired  to  France ;  his  cause  was  utterly  lost  at  Aughrim, 
July  12,  1691. 

103.  Who  was  Schomberg  ?—T\\Q  Duke  of  Schomberg  was 
a  Dutch  general,  an  attached  friend  of  William,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  the  Battle  of  the  Boyne  ;  in  leading  his 
troops  across  the  river,  he  was  killed  by  a  shot ;  and  the 
death  of  this  old  and  valued  soldier  was  felt  by  William  al- 
most to  outweigh  his  victory. 

104.  What  was  the  last  part  of  the  British  Islands  that  held 
out  for  King  James f—ltw?iS  the  Bass,  a  small  rocky  island 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  which  in  the  hands  of  a 
few  youthful  adventurers,  held  out  for  King  James  till  April, 
1694,  and  then  only  through  famine,  surrendered  on  honora- 
ble terms. 

105.  What  was  the  Declaration  of  rights?— It  was  a  docu- 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The    Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47. 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


349 


ment  prepared  by  the  English  parliament,  and  ratified  by 
William  and  Mary,  and  forms  an  important  contract  between 
sovereign  and  people.  It  confirms  the  principle  that  kings 
rule  only  according  to  law,  through  their  ministers  and  a 
free  parliament.  A  similar  compact  was  entered  into  with 
the  Scots  parliament.  These,  along  with  some  other  meas- 
ures, constitute  what  is  usually  styled  the  "  Revolution  Set- 
tlement." 

106.  What  was  the  Mutiny  Act  ? — It  was  an  act  passed  in 
1688,  to  give  perfect  security  to  the  nation  against  military 
despotism. 

107.  Explain  the  provisions  of  the  Mutiny  Act. — According 
to  this  law,  the  sovereign  cannot  raise  or  maintain  an  army 
without  the  consent  of  parliament ;  officers  and  common 
soldiers  are  not  to  be  exempt  from  processes  of  law ;  and 
the  Bill  requires  renewal  every  year — if  not  renewed  by  par- 
liament, the  whole  army  would  be  dissolved. 

108.  Who  were  the  Jacobites? — They  were  adherents  of  the 
exiled  monarch,  James  II.,  from  the  Latinized  form  of  whose 
name  (Jacobus)  they  received  their  designation. 

109.  Who  were  the  Whigs? — The  Term  Whig  originated  in 
Scotland,  where  it  was  reproachfully  applied,  in  the  Civil 
War,  to  the  more  stern  and  zealous  of  the  Presbyterians ;  at 
length,  it  was  extended  to  all  who  adhered  to  the  principles 
of  the  Revolution  Settlement. 

no.  Who  were  the  Tories? — The  appellation  Tory  is  said 
to  have  originated  in  Ireland.  It  was  afterwards  applied  re- 
proachfully to  the  members  of  the  party  in  parliament  during 
the  reign  of  'Charles  II.,  who  adhered  to  the  measures  of  the 
court. 

111.  What  was  the  massacre  of  Glencoe  ? — It  was  the  slaugh- 
ter by  military  execution  of  thirty-eight  individuals  of  the  clan 
Macdonald  in  Glencoe,  Argyleshire,  on  the  )  3th  February,  1692 ; 
the  slaughter  having  taken  place  by  a  warrant  signed  by  King 
William,  proceeding  on  the  ground  that  Macdonald  of  Glen- 
coe, head  of  the  clan,  had  not  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance  by 
the  prescribed  day,  December  31,  1691. 

112.  What  has  been  said  of  the  massacre  of  Glencoe? — That 

15  A 


a 
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c 

e 
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o 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


250  BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y. 

it  was  a  most  atrocious  and  unjustifiable  act,  and  as  such, 
greatly  damages  the  character  of  William  ;  the  king,  how^ 
ever,  acted  by  the  advice  of  his  Scottish  ministers  of  states 
particularly  Sir  John  Dalrymple,  Secretary  of  State  for 
Scotland,  who  afterwards  became  Earl  of  Stair— and  on  him 
rests  the  chief  disgrace  of  this  transaction. 

113.  What  was  the  Darien  Expedition  f — It  was  an  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the  Scots  to  found  a  colony  for  commercial 
purposes  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  for  which,  by  a  great 
national  effort,  the  sum  of  £^oo,qqo  was  subcribed,  1696. 
Through  the  jealousy  of  the  Dutch,  English,  and  Spaniards, 
md  also  some  imperfect  management,  the  scheme  proved 
abortive,  and  led  to  much  discontent. 

114.  When  did  Mary,  consort  of  King  William,  die  ? — She 
died  1694,  after  which  event  the  king  reigned  alone  as  Wil- 
iiam  III.  until  1702,  when  he  died. 

115.  When  did  the  National  Debt  commence  ? — It  commenced 
m  the  reign  of  William  III.,  as  a  consequence  of  his  foreign 
wars.  Regular  banks,  including  the  Bank  of  England  and 
Bank  of  Scotland,  were  also  established  in  his  reign. 

116.  What  was  the  character  of  the  seventeenth  century?— 
The  seventeenth  century  was  marked  by  turbulence  and 
civil  wars  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  ;  which  disorders 
arose  from  the  contest  of  two  principles — the  principle  of 
civil  liberty,  and  the  principle  of  absolute  authority.  The 
struggle  between  these  two  principles  was  provoked  by  the 
Stuarts,  and  ended  in  their  ruin. 

117.  Did  parliament  under  King  William  give  perfect  toler- 
ation to  all  religious  sects? — No;  the  laws,  though  greatly 
modified,  did  not  tolerate  the  Roman  Catholic  form  of  wor 
ship,  nor  did  they  tolerate  in  Scotland  the  forms  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church.  As  regards  perfect  religious  lib- 
erty, there  were  still,  therefore,  various  deficiencies,  the  cause 
of  future  trouble. 

118.  What  were  Nonjurors? — They  were  clergymen  who 
declined  to  swear  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary 
*— the  term  Nonjuror  signifying  Non-Swearer.    The  dis-es* 


Croesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned  for   Great  Wealth.— See  page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg. — See    page   305. 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y 


35t 


tablished  Episcopal  clergy  in  Scotland  were  for  a  time  Non- 
jurors. 

119.  Who  succeeded  King  William  ? — Anne,  daughter  of  the 
exiled  James  II.,  who  had  been  reared  in  England  as  a  Prot- 
estant. She  succeeded  in  virtue  of  an  act  of  parliament 
passed  in  1689,  excluding  Roman  Catholics  from  the  throne, 

120.  What  was  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  ? — It  was 
a  war  which  began  in  1701,  in  the  reign  of  King  William  ;  its 
object  was  to  prevent  a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France 
from  inheriting  the  crown  of  Spain,  as  it  was  feared  that  if 
\ie  did  so,  the  power  of  the  French  would  be  too  great  in 
-Europe. 

121.  Who  were  the  principal  parties  in  this  war  ? — On  one 
side  were  England,  Germany,  and  Holland— these  powers 
being  called  the  Grand  Alliance;  on  the  other  side  were 
France  and  Spain. 

122.  Who  was  Marlborough  f— John  Churchill,  Duke  of 
Marlborough,  was  the  greatest  general  and  statesman  of  his 
time  ;  he  commanded  in  the  wars  of  King 
William  and  Queen  Anne,  against  the 
French,  by  whom  he  was  popularly  known 
as  "  Malbrook."  Unfortunately  for  his 
memory,  it  has  been  discovered  that 
while  serving  King  William  and  Queen 
Anne,  he  was  secretly  in  the  pay  of  the 
exiled  royal  family — a  species  of  dishon- 
esty very  common  among  public  men  at 

this  period.  Queen  Anne. 

123.  In  what  great  battles  was  Marlborough  victorious  in  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne? — Blenheim,  Ramillies,  Oudenarde,  and 
Malplaquet.  After  the  first  victory,  he  was  rewarded  by  par- 
liament with  the  estate  called  Woodstock,  in  England,  and 
Queen  Anne  began  to  build  for  him  the  palace  of  Blen- 
heim. 

124.  When  was  Gibraltar  taken  by  the  English? — Gibraltar 
Was  captured  from  the  Spaniards  in  1704,  and  though  several 
times  besieged,  it  has  ever  since  remained  a  British  posses- 
sion. 


w 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second. — See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821. — See  page  411. 


252  BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y. 

125.  Was  Queen  Anne  married? — Yes;  she  had  married 
George  Prince  of  Denmark  before  she  became  queen  ;  and 
she  had  seventeen  children,  all  of  whom  predeceased  her. 

126.  What  was  the  act  of  Settlement  f — It  was  an  act  of  par- 
liament passed  in  the  reign  of  William  III.,  June  12,  1701,  set- 
tling  the  succession  to  the  throne  ;  in  the  event  of  Anne  dy- 
ing without  issue,  the  succession  was  limited  to  the  descend 
ants  of  Elizabeth  Stuart,  daughter  of  James  I.,  being  Prot- 
estants. As  Sophia,  wife  of  the  Elector  of  Hanover,  was 
the  only  surviving  child  of  Elizabeth,  who  was  a  Protestant, 
all  looked  to  her  or  her  son  as  the  successor  of  Queen 
Anne. 

127.  Who  was  the  ''Pretender  .?"— Such  was  the  name  given 
to  James,  son  of  James  II.,  who,  on  the  death  of  his  father 
in  1701,  was  recognized  by  the  Jacobites  as  rightful  heir  to 
the  throne,  under  the  title  of  James  III. ;  the  designation  Pr^- 
tender  was  given  by  the  Whigs.  The  Pretender  was  also 
called  the  "  Chevalier  de  St.  George." 

128.  What  was  the  Court  of  St.  Germain  ?—\\.  was  the  court 
of  the  exiled  royal  family  at  St.  Germain,  in  France,  and  was 
noted  as  a  centre  of  projects  to  recover  the  throne.  Per- 
sioned  by  France,  James  II.,  and  afterwards  his  son,  the 
Pretender,  were  able  to  give  secret  bribes  to  Marlborough 
and  others  to  secure  their  assistance. 

129.  On  what  did  the  Jacobites  found  their  hopes  ?—Th^j 
thought  that  as  there  had  been  one  Restoration,  so  might 
there  be  another ;  and  under  this  impression,  they  had  long 
an  expectation  of  seeing  the  Stuarts  once  more  on  the 
throne. 

130.  What  effect  had  these  hopes  on  the  English  Whigs  ?~^ 
Fearing  that  the  Stuarts  might  secure  a  footing  in  Scotland, 
they  pressed  forward  the  project  of  a  thorough  legislative 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms. 

131.  Was  the  proposal  of  Union  readily  accepted  by  the  Scots  f 
—No  ;  it  was  violently  opposed,  more  particularly  by  Andrew 
Fletcher  of  Salton  ;  and  the  act  authorizing  the  union,  was 
carried  in  the  Scots  parliament  only  by  the  administration  of 
money  bribes  to  a  number  of  the  members. 


"  Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


Ul 


O 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  V.  353 

132.  When  did  the  Union  of  England  and  Scotland  take 
place? — After  much  debate  in  both  countries,  a  treaty  of 
union  was  enacted,  which  came  into  operation  on  the  istof 
May,  1707.  On  the  23d  of  October  that  year,  the  first  united 
parHament  of  Great  Britain  met  at  Westminster.  This  event 
was  the  most  important  that  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne. 

133.  What  were  the  7nutual  advantages  of  the  Union? — The 
EngHsh  secured  a  firm  alliance  with  a  nation  that  had  been  a 
trouble  to  them  forages  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  Scots  bene 
fited  by  having  the  whole  English  dominions  open  to  their  en 
terprise,  while  at  the  same  time  they  preserved  their  peculiai 
iiational  institutions.  History  presents  no  instance  of  a 
more  equitable,  and,  as  it  proved,  more  successful  union  of 
two  nations. 

134.  What  was  parliament  called  after  the  Union  ? — It  was 
called  the  British  Parliament,  and  embraced  representa- 
tives from  England  and  Scotland — the  parliament  of  Ireland 
being  still  left  in  that  country. 

135.  What  was  the  flag  of  England  previous  to  the  Union? — 
It  was  the  cross  of  St.  George. 

136.  What  was  the  flag  of  Scotland  previous  to  the  Union  ? — 
It  was  the  cross  of  St.  Andrew. 

137.  What  was  the  flag  of  Great  Britain  after  the  Union  ?~ 
It  was  the  crosses  of  St,  George  and  St.  Andrew  blended, 
constituting  a  flag  known  as  the  Union  Jack. 

138.  Mention  some  noteworthy  particulars  concerning  Eng- 
land at  the  Union. — The  population  of  England  and  Wales 
was  little  more  than  5,000,000  ;  the  value  of  the  whole  annual 
exports  was  about  ^8,000,000 ;  and  the  population  of  London 
and  its  suburbs  was  only  about  500,000. 

1 39.  Mention  some  noteworthy  particulars  concerning  Scotland 
at  the  Union. — The  population  was  under  1,000,000,  and  com- 
prehended at  least  100,000  beggars  and  vagrants  ;  the  annual 
government  revenue  was  no  more  than  £1 10,000 ;  the  annual 
value  of  exports  to  England  was  but  ^130,000  ;  and  the  pop- 
ulation of  Glasgow  had  not  risen  above  13,000. 

140.  What  is  learned  from  a  cofisideration  of  these  paritcw 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  i503-"-See  page  i8i 


354 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


larsf—V^Q  are  made  aware  of  the  very  backward  condition 
of  Great  Britain,  the  prosperity  of  which  had  been  greatly 
retarded  by  internal  wars  and  other  social  disorders  during 
the  seventeenth  century. 

141.  Did  England  and  Scotland  correspondingly  advance  after 
the  Union? — No;  as  more  favored  by  circumstances,  Eng- 
land advanced  the  most  rapidly ;  besides  having  most  to  re- 
cover, Scotland  was  fated  to  endure  the  commotions  of  two 
rebellions,  and  hence  its  progress  is  of  comparatively  recent 
date. 

142.  What  were  the  Sacheverell  riots  f — They  were  riots  in 
London  in  1710,  fomented  by  a  mischievous  sermon 
preached  Dr.  Henry  Sacheverell  before  the  Lord  Mayor,  5th 
November,  1709,  denouncing  the  Revolution  and  the  tolera- 
tion of  Dissenters ;  several  chapels  of  Dissenters  were 
burned  on  the  occasion  ;  the  tumults  were  at  length  sup- 
pressed by  the  military.  Sacheverell  was  tried  for  his  seditious 
harangue  by  the  House  of  Lords,  and  suspended  as  a 
preacher  for  three  years;  but  the  clergy,  the  country  gentry, 
and  the  mob,  espoused  his  cause,  and  for  a  time  he  was  a  very 
popular  person. 

143.  What  was  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  ? — It  was  a  treaty  of 
peace  between  Great  Britain  and  France,  to  which  some 
other  states  acceded,  1713.  It  closed  the  Spanish  War  of 
Succession.  By  this  Treaty,  the  French  king  recognized 
the  Protestant  succession  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  Stuarts,  and  conceded  various  commercial 
advantages  ;  Nova  Scotia  and  some  other  colonial  possess- 
ions were  also  given  up  to  England. 

144.  When  did  Queen  Anne  die? — She  died  August  r,  1714. 
and  with  her  expired  the  last  member  of  the  House  of 
Stuart  on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain. 


BRITISH  HISTORY,  FROM  1714  TILL  THE 
REIGN  OF  QUEEN  VICTORIA. 

I.   Who  was  George  I.  — He  was  George,  Elector  of  Han- 
over,   son    of    Sophia,  youngest    daughter    of    Elizabeth 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was    the    Food    of  the   Gods — See  page   248. 


m 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y. 


355 


Stuart,  Queen  ol  Bohemia,  who  was  daughter  of  James  I.  He 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  demise  of  Queen  Anne, 
August  I,  1714. 

2.  Why  did  the  succession  devolve  on  Sophia  and  her  descend- 
a?its? — Because  all  the  other  children  of  Elizabeth  Stuart 
were  either  dead  or  had  become  Roman  Catholics ;  Sophia, 
as  the  only  Protestant  in  the  family,  would,  in  terms  of  the 
Act  of  Settlement,  have  succeeded  as  queen,  but  she  died  a 
few  months  before  Queen  Anne. 

3.  What  was  the  surname  of  the  new  dynasty  ? — It  was  Guelph, 
but  usually  the  dynasty  is  spoken  of  as  the  "  House  of  Han- 
over," or"  House  of  Brunswick"— George  I.  having  inherited 
from  his  father  the  dukedom  of  Brunswick-Luneburg. 

4.  Did  George  retain  Hanover  on  acceding  to  the  throne? — 
Yes;  he  remained  Elector  of  Hanover,  and  conducted  the 
government  of  that  country  by  deputy;  Hanover,  accord- 
ingly, continued  for  more  than  a  century  to  be  a  continental 
principality  of  the  British  sovereigns. 

5-  Could  George  I.  speak  English  ? — Yes ;  but  he  spoke  \\ 
very  badly;  and  he  brought  with  him  a  son,  George,  who  also 
had  neither  the  language  nor  the  manners  of  a  native-born 
Englishman — circumstances  which  tended  to  limit  the  popu- 
larity of  the  new  dynasty. 

6.  Were  any  efforts  made  by  the  Jacobites  to  prevent  the  acces 
sion  of  the  Hanover  fa7nily  ? — No  ;  the  designs  they  entertained 
in  favor  of  the  Pretender  were  frustrated  by  the  sudden  de- 
mise of  Queen  Anne,  and  George  I.  was  called  to  the  throne 
without  opposition. 

7.  Who  was  Bolingbroke  ?—Y{enry  St.  John,  Lord  Bolingbroke, 
was  a  Tory  statesman, minister  of  Queen  Anne;  having,  like 
many  of  his  party,  intrigued  with  the  Jacobites  to  bring  in 
the  Pretender,  he  fled  to  France  at  the  accession  of  the  Han- 
over family,  but  afterwards  returned  to  England.  He  wrote 
some  historical  works,  and  speculative  treatises. 

8.  What  is  the  Riot  Act  ? — It  is  a  statute,  enacted  in  17 15, 
in  the  reign  of  George  I.,  which  permits  military  force  to  be 
used  in  dispersing  a  riotous  mob,  after  a  certain  space  o^ 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


Ui 


SS^ 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  V. 


time  has  been  allowed  ;  the  principle  of  this  celebrated  act 
however,  was  not  new  to  English  law,  for  there  was  a  statute 
passed  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VL,  rendering  it  treason  for 
a  crowd  not  to  disperse  after  proclamation. 

9.  Wkai  was  the  rebellion  of  1715.^ — It  was  a  rebellion  in 
Scotland  and  the  north  of  England  to  re-establish  the  Stuart 
dynasty  in  the  person  of  the  Pretender,  or,  as  he  was  styled, 
James  III.,  who  landed  in  Scotland  to  aid  in  the  enterprise. 

10.  Who  was  the  Earl  of  Mar  ? — He  was  a  Scottish  noble- 
man, who  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion  in  17 15,  but  his 
forces  were  defeated  at  Sheriflfmuir,  November  13;  and  on 
the  same  day  the  English  rebels  surrendered  at  Preston  ;  by 
which  means  this  ill-advised  insurrection  was  speedily  ter- 
minated. 

1 1 .  Who  was  the  Earl  of  Derwentwater  f — He  was  an  English 
nobleman  who  unhappily  appeared  in  arms  in  the  Rebellion 
in  1715,  but  was  taken  prisoner  at  Preston,  and  beheaded  in 
February,  1716;  Viscount  Kenmureand  about  twenty  inferior 
persons  were  also  executed.  The  Earls  of  Mar  and  Nithsdale 
and  the  Pretender  escaped  to  France. 

12.  Who  was  Sir  Robert  Walpole? — He  was  an  eminent 
Whig  statesman  and  prime-minister  in  the  reigns  of  George 
I.  and  George  II.;  it  was  in  a  great  degree  to  his  prudence, 
vigilance,  and  good  management  that  the  plans  of  the 
Jacobites  were  frustrated,  and  the  Hanover  family  fixed 
permanently  on  the  throne.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Orford 
and  died  in  1745. 

1 3.  Was  not  Walpole  accused  of  corrupt  practices  ? — He  was, 
and  with  some  truth.  Living  in  an  age  in  which  there  was 
little  political  honesty,  he  was  in  the  habit  of  securing  pub- 
lic men  by  bribes,  and  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  author  of 
the  memorable  saying,  that  "All  men  have  their  price." 

14.  For  what  was  General  Wade  noted? — He  was  noted  for 
the  military  roads  which  he  surveyed  and  constructed  in  the 
Highlands,  under  the  authority  of  government,  between  1725 
and  1735  I  besides  opening  up  the  country  to  travellers,  these 
famed  roads,  along  with  certain  forts,  placed  the  Highlands 
under  effectual  military  control. 


The    Bastile   was  a   Prison  in    Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page   407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  V.  357 

15.  What  was  the  South-sea  Bubble  ? — It  was  a  joint-stock 
commercial  undertaking,  called  the  South-sea  company,  which 
was  invested  with  exclusive  powers  of  trading  to  the  South- 
sea,  and  also  certain  privileges  connected  with  national  fin- 
ance. Commencing  in  1710,  it  speedily  degenerated  into  a 
gambling  speculation  in  shares.  The  whole  affair  was  a  mix- 
ture of  delusion  and  imposture,  and  when  the  "bubble"  burst 
in  1720,  the  chief  culprits  absconded,  and  great  numbers  were 
ruined. 

16.  When  did  the  Methodists  originate? — The  sect  of 
Methodists  was  founded  by  John  Wesley,  a  person  of  great 
vigor  of  character  and  eminent  for  his  piety,  about  1729 — the 
name  Methodists  being  given  from  the  methodic  strictness  of 
the  conduct  of  members  of  the  sect. 

17.  Whe7i  did  George  I.  die? — He  died,  June  11,  1727,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  George  II.,  who  had  been  a  number 
of  years  married,  and  had  two  sons,  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales,  and  William,  Duke  of  Cumberland ;  also  several 
daughters. 

1 8.  What  great  navigator  was  there  in  the  reign  of  George 
11.  ? — George  Lord  Anson,  who  made  various  voyages  ex- 
ploratory of  unknown  parts  of  the  globe,  and  added  greatly 
to  the  maritime  glory  of  England.     He  died  1760. 

1 9.  What  was  the  battle  of  Dettingen  ? — It  was  a  battle  which 
occurred  in  the  Austrian  War  of  Succession,  and  on  the  part 
of  the  English  was  professedly  undertaken  to  protect  the 
king's  Hanoverian  dominions.  The  battle,  which  took  place 
June,  1743,  ended  favorably  to  the  British  and  Hanoverian 
forces.  George  II.  was  present,  and  this  was  the  last  occa- 
sion of  a  king  of  Great  Britain  appearing  on  a  field  of 
battle. 

20.  What  was  the  battle  of  Fontenoy  ? — It  was  a  battle  in  the 
Austrian  War  of  Succession  between  the  allies  (English,  Dutch 
and  Germans)  under  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  and  the  French 
under  Marshal  Saxe,  May,  1745,  i^^  which  there  was  great 
slaughter.  The  allies  were  first  successful,  but  were  after- 
Wards  beaten  and  forced  to  retreat. 

21.  What  children  had  the  Pretender,  who  assumed  th^  tit  It 


bo 
rt 

V 

u 
W 

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'u 

G 

< 

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m 

o 

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a 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles.— See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


358 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y. 


of  James  III. .?— He  had  two  sons,  Charles-Edward,  ordinarily 
called  the  Young  Chevalier,  and  Henry-Benedict,  who  was 
bred  an  ecclesiastic,  and  became  known  as  Cardinal  York. 

22.  What  was  the  Rebellion  of  1745  ? — It  was  a  rebellion  of 
the  Jacobites  in  Scotland,  headed  by  Prince  Charles-Ed- 
ward, the  Young  Chevalier,  who,  for  the  purpose  of  "re- 
covering the  throne  of  his  ancestors,"  landed  in  Moidart. 
on  the  west  coast  of  the  Highlands,  July,  1745,  ^i^d  thence 
marched  southwards  with  his  followers. 

23.  Who  were  the  followers  of  the  Young  Chevalier  ? — They 
were  principally  Highlanders  under  their  respective  chiefs, 
along  with  some  Lowland  Scottish  noblemen  and  gentlemen, 
who  had  clung  to  the  shattered  fortunes  of  the  Stuarts. 

24.  When  did  the  Young  Chevalier  enter  Edinburgh  ? — On 
the  i6th  September,  1745,  and  five  days  afterwards  (Septem- 
ber 21)  he  fought  the  battle  of  Prestonpans,  in  which  the 
royal  forces  under  General  Cope  were  completely  routed,  and 
Colonel  James  Gardiner  was  mortally  wounded.  This  success 
of  the  rebel  arms  caused  extreme  consternation  throughout 
England. 

25.  How  far  did  the  rebel  army  march  southwards  ? — It 
reached  as  far  as  Derby,  and  there  becoming  disheartened,  it 
commenced  its  retreat  northwards,  followed  by  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland. 

26.  When  was  the  battle  of  Culloden fought? — On  the  i6th 
of  April,  1746,  when  the  royal  forces  under  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  rebels.  After 
various  hardships,  the  Young  Chevalier  escaped  to  France, 
and  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts  was  forever  lost. 

27.  What  noblemen  suffered  for  aiding  in  the  Rebellion  of  1 745  ? 
— Lords  Balmerino,  Kilmarnock,  and  Lovat,  all  of  whom 
were  beheaded. 

28.  When  did  the  line  of  Stuart  become  extinct? — It  became 
extinct  by  the  death  of  Cardinal  York,  1807,  who  survived  his 
brother,  Charles-Edward,  nineteen  years.  Long  before  this 
event,  the  Stuarts  had  vanished  from  popular  remembrance. 

29.  What  effect  had  the  extinction  of  the  Rebellion  on  Scotland  f 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793     to     1794. — See   page    409. 


EAST    INDIA    CUSTOMS.       MAHRATTA    WOMEN. —  359 


The    Battle    of  "Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815. — See   page    368. 


CO 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y. 


359 


—Immediately  after  the  rebellion,  the  country  shook  off 
various  retarding  influences,  and  started  forward  in  a  course 
of  improvement ;  its  advance  was  greatly  promoted  by  the 
abolition  of  the  heritable  jurisdictions,  and  the  institution  of 
sheriffs  on  a  proper  footing. 

30.  What  were  the  Heritable  Jurisdictions  ? — They  were 
rights  of  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  possessed  heritably 
by  certain  families  in  connection  with  their  lands,  and  were 
the  source  of  much  oppression  and  cruelty.  As  it  was  in  vir- 
tue of  these  ancient  and  ill-defined  rights  that  Highland 
chiefs  exercised  control  over  their  clans,  their  abolition  be- 
came a  matter  of  public  safety. 

31.  When  were  the  Scottish  heritable  jurisdictions  abolished  f 
— They  were  abolished,  along  with  all  hereditary  sheriffships, 
by  an  act  of  parliament,  which  came  into  operation  in  1748; 
since  which  period,  sheriffs  and  other  judicial  functionaries 
in  Scotland  have  been  appointed  by  the  crown. 

32.  What  was  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ? — It  was  a  treaty 
of  peace  in  1748 — closing  the  Austrian  War 'of  Succession— 
between  ^reat  Britain,  Austria,  and  Holland,  on  one  hand, 
and  France,  Spain,  and  Bavaria  on  the  other,  by  which  Bri' 
tain  andf  France  restored  their  conquests,  and  agreed  to 
stand  in/  the  condition  which  they  occupied  when  the  wai 
began  .hine  years  previously.  By  this  war  thirty  millions 
were  added  to  the  national  debt. 

33.  What  was  the  Seven  Years'  War? — It  was  a  great  Euro- 
pean war,  between  Prussia  and  England  on  the  one  side,  and 
Austria,  France,  and  Russia  on  the  other.  It  originated  in 
the  dissatisfaction  felt  by  Maria  Theresa  at  the  result  of  the 
previous  wars  for  the  possession  of  Silesia,  between  her  and 
Frederick  the  Great,  and  lasted  from  1756  to  1763.  On  ac- 
count of  the  extensive  colonial  possessions  of  France  and 
England,  however,  it  was  not  confined  to  the  continent  of 
Europe,  but  was  waged  all  over  the  world. 

34.  When  was  Calcutta  taken  from  the  English  ?— It  w?iS 
captured  on  the  20th  of  June,  1756,  by  Suraja  Dowlah,  gov- 
ernor of  Bengal,  who  took  the  small  garrison,  consisting  0/ 
146  persons,  prisoners. 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


t 


3^ 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


35.  What  event  took  place  at  the  capture  of  Calcutta? — The 
English  prisoners,  146  in  number,  were  confined  in  a  small 
garrison  prison,  called  the  Black  Hole,  and  from  overcrowd- 
ing and  want  of  air,  123  died  in  a  single  night,  leaving  only 
23  survivors.     Calcutta  was  recovered  by  Clive. 

36.  Who  was  Clive? — Robert  Clive  was  a  young  English- 
man, who  was  originally  only  a  clerk  at  Madras,  in  the  Indian 
Civil  Service,  but  rose  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  generals  and 
statesmen  of  his  time.  His  conquests  were  achieved  in  India. 
The  greatest  of  his  victories  was  the  battle  of  Plassey,  1757, 
which  laid  the  foundation  of  the  British  empire  in  Hindustan. 

37.  How  were  dive's  services  acknowledged? — He  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  under  the  title  of  Lord  Clive;  and  his  son  was 
elevated  to  the  earldom  of  Powis. 

38.  Who  was  Admiral  By ng? — John  Byng  was  a  brave  but 
ill-iated  British  admiral,  who  was  accused  of  not  supporting 
Admiral  West  in  an  attack  on  the  French  fleet  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, by  which  means  that  fleet  escaped.  For  this  act 
of  alleged  cowardice  he  was  tried  and  condemned  to  death, 
and  was  executed,  1757. 

39.  Who  was  General  Wolfe? — He  was  commander  of  the 
British  forces  sent  to  Canada  to  attack  the  French.  On  the 
13th  September,  1759,  he  gained  the  famous  battle  of  Quebec, 
but  was  unfortunately  killed  in  the  moment  of  victory. 
Canada,  which  had  hitherto  been  a  French  colony,  was  shortly 
afterwards  surrendered  to  Great  Britain. 

40.  When  did  Frederick  Prince  of  Wales  die?— \{^  died  in 
1751,  leaving  a  large  family  of  children,  the  eldest  of  whom 
was  George-William-Frederick,  born  June  4th,  1738. 

41.  When  was  the  New  Style  adopted  in  England?— \\  was 
adopted  in  1752  ;  under  the  authority  of  an  act  ol  parliament, 
eleven  days  were  dropped  out  of  the  calendar — the  3d  of 
September  being  reckoned  the  14th.  At  the  same  time, 
the  year  was  ordered  to  be  begun  on  the  ist  of  January  in- 
stead of  25th  of  March,  as  had  been  the  practice  in  Scotland 
since  1600. 

42.  When  did  George  II.  die .?— He  died  on  25th  October,  1760^ 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in    1588. — See   page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long. — See    page    302. 


BRITISH  HISTOR  F. 


361 


when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  George-William- 
Frederick,  who  assumed  the  title  of  George  III. 

43.  What  did  the  nation  particularly  appreciate  in  George 
III.? — He  was  appreciated  as  being  a  native-born  English- 
man, the  first  who  was  so  in  the  Hanover  line  ;  but  through- 
out his  long  reign,  George  HI.  was  much  esteemed  for  his 
domestic  and  other  valuable  qualities. 

44.  Who  was  the  Earl  of  Bute? — He  was  a  Scottish  noble- 
man, appointed  prime-minister  by  George  HI.  in  1762 ;  by 
trying  to  extend  the  power  of  the  crown  at  the  expense  of 
the  constitutional  rights  of  the  executive,  Bute  became  ex<' 
tremely  unpopular,  and  had  to  retire  from  office  within  less 
than  a  year.     His  most  furious  assailant  was  John  Wilkes. 

45.  Mention  some  circumstances  concerning  Wilkes. — He  was 
a  member  of  parliament,  and  editor  of  a  scurrilous  paper, 
called  the  North  Briton,  in  which  he  abused  Lord  Bute  and 
the  Scotch  generally,  and  even  brought  accusations  against 
the  king,  1763. 

46.  What  was  done  with  Wilkes? — He  was  committed  to 
the  Tower,  but  being  soon  liberated,  he  continued  for  years 
to  cause  popular  tumults,  in  which  was  raised  the  cry  of 
"  Wilkes  and  Liberty  !"  With  much  foundation  for  his  an- 
imadversions on  public  affairs,  Wilkes  was  in  reality  a  dis- 
reputable demagogue. 

47.  What  was  the  American  Stamp  Act  ? — It  was  an  act  of 
parliament  under  the  administration  of  Mr,  Grenville,  1765, 
imposing  stamps  on  certain  documents  in  the  British  colon- 
ies in  North  America — the  imposition  of  such  stamps  being 
a  method  of  taxing  the  colonists  for  the  benefit  of  the  mother- 
country. 

48.  What  ivas  deemed  objectionable  in  the  Stamp  Act? — The 
act  was  objected  to  by  the  colonists  on  the  ground  that,  ac- 
cording to  a  fundamental  principle  in  the  British  consti- 
tution, there  could  be  no  taxation  without  representation. 
As  the  colonists  had  no  representatives  in  parliament,  they 
called  the  stamp  Act  tyranny. 

49.  Did  government,  however,  persist  in  taxing  the  colonists  f 

16 


a 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 

-■  •  -'i 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


362 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y. 


— Yes ;  by  several  successive  acts  they  proceeded  to  imposa 
various  taxes  on  the  colonists— on  tea,  glass,  colors,  etc.— ■ 
which  at  length  led  to  a  general  colonial  rebellion. 

50.  Who  were  the  ministers  chiejly  concerned  in  producing 
the  c^'onial  rebellion? — Mr.  Grenville  and  Lord  North;  but 
King  George  III.  was  perhaps  quite  as  much  to  blame  as  his 
ministers. 

51.  To  what  party  of  politicians  did  George  III.  incline? — To 
the  Tory  party,  which,  from  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of 
George  III.  superseded  the  Whigs,  who  had  long  been  in 
power. 

52.  Who  was  Junius? — Junius  was  an  unknown  writer  of 
great  ability,  who,  in  1769,  commenced  a  series  of  letters  in 
a  newspaper,  animadverting  on  the  men  and  measures  of 
government.  No  one  has  ever  distinctly  discovered  who 
Junius  was  ;  but  the  balance  of  evidence  is  in  favor  of  Sir 
Philip  Francis.  His  letters  are  considered  a  model  of  pure 
and  nervous  English. 

53.  When  did  the  American  War  commence  ? — It  began  in 
1775  (April  18),  when  the  colonists  confronted  the  British 
troops  at  Lexington,  Massachusetts,  and  the  first  engage- 
ment took  place. 

54.  When  was  the  battle  of  Bunker  s  Hill  fought  ? — It  was 
fought  June  17,  1775,  when  the  British  forces  were  victorious, 
but  lost  heavily. 

55.  Mention  some  facts  concerning  General  Washington. — He 
was   a   distinguished    Virginian   who   was  appointed    com- 
mander-in-chief of  the   American  forces, 
1775,  and  with    consummate  bravery  and 
skill  conducted  the  war. 

56.  What  was  the  number  of  British  colo- 
nies that  revolted? — Thirteen  ;  to  which 
there  were  subsequent  accessions. 

57.  When  did  the  thirteen  British  colonies 
Washington.     ^  ^declare  their    Independence? — They    made 

their  famous"  Declaration  of  Independence"  at  Philadelphia, 
July  4,  1776.  From  this  time  the  colonies  became  known  as 
the  United  States. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133. 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y. 


363 


58.  How  long  did  the  American  PFar  continue  f— It  continued 
from  1775  until  1782,  and  ended  in  tlie  complete  withdrawal 
of  the  British  forces,  and  in  the  acknowledgment  by  George 
III.  of  the  absolute  independence  of  the  colonies.  By  the 
American  war  a  hundred  millions  were  added  to  the  national 
debt,  and  the  crown  lost  three  millions  of  subjects. 

59.  IVere  the  A7nericans  assisted  by  foreigners  in  throwing 
off  the  British  authority? — Yes;  France,  Spain,  Holland,  and 
some  other  countries  took  part  with  the  Americans,  by  which 
means  a  general  war  ensued. 

60.  Who  was  Rodney  f— Sir  George  Rodney  was  a  British 
admiral,  who  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  French  fleet  in 
1782,  for  which  and  other  services  he  was  created  a  peer,  with 
the  title  of  Lord  Rodney,  and  was  rewarded  with  a  pension  by 
parliament. 

61.  What  is  now  thought  of  the  American  War? — The  uni- 
\^ersal  opinion  in  England  now  is,  that  the  colonists  were  in 
the  right,  and  that  the  war  against  them  was  wrong.  The 
great  English  statesmen  then  living  were  always  against 
it.  The  Earl  of  Chatham  affirmed  that  the  colonists  would 
have  been  slaves  if  they  had  not  resisted  ;  and  the  younger 
Pitt  denounced  the  war  as  "conceived  in  injustice  and  nur- 
tured in  folly,"  as  "  impious"  and  "  detestable  ;"  and  praised  the 
colonists  as  "  men  fighting  in  the  holy  cause  of  liberty." 

62.  What  eminent  English  writer  supported  government  in  the 
project  of  taxing  the  colonies?— Vir.  Samuel  Johnson,  who 
wrote  a  pamphlet  on  the  subject,  entitled  Taxation  no 
Tyranny. 

63.  Who  was  Charles  Jatnes  Fox  ?—Ue  was  a  celebrated 
Whig  statesman,  second  son  of  the  first  Lord  Holland,  who 
came  into  public  notice  in  1770,  and  was  ultimately  distin- 
guished as  the  parliamentary  opponent  of  Mr.  Pitt. 

64.  Who  was  Mr.  P///.?— William  Pitt  was  a  celebrated 
statesman,  a  younger  son  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham.  He  began 
public  life  as  a  promoter  of  Reform  in  the  House  of  Commons  ; 
and  his  political  principles  were  always  liberal,  alike  in  mat- 
ters of  representation,  religious  opinion,  and  commerce  ;  but 
his  "patriotism"  led  him  to  oppose  the  French  revolution^ 


> 

OS 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13, 


upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65. 


364 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


ists  and  the  policy  of  Bonaparte,  and  led  the  nation  into 
costly  foreign  wars.  Fox  was  the  great  opponent  of  his  for^ 
eign  pohoy. 

65.  What  was  the  scheme  of  the  Sinking  Fund? — It  was  g 
celebrated  and  fallacious  scheme  for  paying  off  the  National 
Debt,  by  setting  aside  any  excess  of  revenue  to  accumulate 
at  compound  interest ;  both  Fox  and  Pitt  favored  this  project, 
not  perceiving  that  the  shortest  way  of  lessening  debt  is  sim- 
ply to  discharge  it  as  fast  as  possible.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  1 81 3  that  the  fallacy  of  the  Sinking  Fund  was  discov- 
ered. 

66.  Who  was  Mr.  Burke? — Edmund  Burke  was  a  philoso- 
pher and  politician,  who  attained  to  great  distinction  as  ^. 
parliamentary  orator  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  He  began 
public  life  as  a  Whig,  but  concluded  as  an  adherent  of  Pitt. 
His  most  celebrated  speech  was  at  the  opening  of  the  trial  of 
Warren  Hastings,  1788. 

67.  What  were  the  Lord  George  Gordon  Riots  ? — They  were 
dreadful  riots  in  London  in  1780,  headed  by  Lord  George 
Gordon  (a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Gordon),  in  which  great  damage 
was  done  until  they  were  suppressed  by  the  military. 

68.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  Gordon  riots? — It  was  the 
passing  of  a  bill  in  parliament  in  1778,  relieving  the  Roman 
Catholics  from  some  of  the  penal  laws  affecting  them.  The 
wish  of  the  rioters  was  to  recall  this  act  of  the  legislature,  and 
"  No  Popery"  was  their  distinguishing  cry.  This  intemperate 
outbreak  was  entirely  unsuccessful ;  and  Lord  George  Gor- 
don, who  is  believed  to  have  been  of  unsound  mind,  died  in 
Newgate  prison,  1793. 

69.  Who  was  Warren  Hastings? — He  was  an  Englishman 
who,  by  his  great  abilities,  rose  from  a  humble  position  in 
India  to  be  governor-general  of  that  country,  1773,  under  the 
East  India  Company,  which  thanked  and  rewarded  him  for 
his  great  services. 

70.  Of  what  was  Warren  Hastings  accused? — He  was  im- 
peached at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords  for  using  corrupt 
and  unjustifiable  means  to  increase  the  finances  of  the  East 
India   Company ;  his  accusers  were  Burke,  Fox,  Sheridan, 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    iii. 


The    Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47. 


BRITISH  HISTORY.  365 

and  other  members  of  the  Whig  party.  This  memorable 
trial  began  in  1788,  and  did  not  end  until  1795,  when  the 
House  pronounced  a  verdict  of  acquittal. 

71.  What  maritime  discoveries  were  made  in  the  early  part 
of  the  reign  of  George  III. .?— Important  discov  ries  were  made 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  Captain  James  O  jk,  an  eminent 
navigator,  who  was  killed  at  Hawaii,  1779. 

72.  What  mechanical  inventions  were  made  in  the  early  part 
of  the  reign  of  George  III. .?— The  steam-engine  was  perfected 
by  James  Watt;  spinning  machinery  was  invented  by  the 
successive  efforts  of  James  Hargreave,  Richard  Arkwright, 
and  Samuel  Crompton  ;  and,  finally,  the  power-loom  was 
invented  by  the  Rev.  D.  E.  Cartwright,  1785— by  all  which 
inventions  the  manufacturing  prosperity  of  the  country  was 
prodigiously  increased. 

73.  When  were  mail-coaches  introduced  ?— They  were  intro- 
duced by  John  Palmer  of  Bath  in  1784  ;  they  became  general 
in  1785,  and  formed  a  great  improvement  on  the  old  meth- 
ods ot  conveyance. 

74.  When  did  French  Revolution  break  out  f— It  broke  out 
in  1789;  monarchy  was  abolished,  and  a  republic  instituted 
1792 ;  ani  Louis  XVI.  was  executed  1793. 

75.  When  was  war  proclaimed  by  Great  Britain  against  the 
French  Republic? — War  was  proclaimed  February  i,  I793» 
in  order  to  check  the  progress  of  French  revolutionary 
principles,  and  restrain  French  conquests. 

76.  Was  the  French  war  popular  ? — Yes  ;  by  all  but  a  small 
party  the  war  met  with  general  approval,  and  was  expe^  ted 
to  end  triumphantly  for  Great  Britain  in  a  very  short    /me. 

'j'j.  How  long  did  the  French  war  last  ?—  With  a  short  in- 
terval of  peace  in  1802 — 1803,  it  lasted  until  1814,  or  alto- 
gether about  nineteen  years;  the  hopeful  anticipations  of 
its  early  termination  being  entirely  falsified. 

78.  Was  the  war  from  first  to  last  against  the  French  repub' 
lie  ? — No  ;  during  its  progress,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  rose  to 
power  in  France  and  against  him — first  as  consul,  and  after* 
Wards  as  emperor — the  war  was  carried  on. 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors. — See    page    243. 


366 


BRITISH  HISTORY, 


79.  What  was  the  Treaty  of  Amiens  ? — It  was  a  treaty  at 
Amiens  in  March,  1802,  establishing  peace  with  the  French, 
but  this  peac  :  endured  only  until  May,  1803,  when  the  war 
was  resumed. 

80.  What  gr  xt  naval  commander  arose  during  the  early  part 
of  the  French  ■&  ir? — Horatio  Nelson  ;  who  for  his  eminent 
services  was  ra«sed  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Nelson,  and  after- 
wards elevated  to  a  Viscountcy.  Nelson  was  killed  on  board 
the  Victory,  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  October  21,  1805.  His 
body  was  interred  with  public  honors  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

81.  When  was  Malta  captured? — It  was  captured  by  the 
British  from  the  French  in  1800,  after  a  siege  of  two  years. 
The  French,  who  fiad  taken  the  island  from  a  military  order 
styled  the  Knights  of  Malta,  were  expelled  ;  Malta  remains  a 
British  possession. 

82.  Did  the  French  threaten  to  invade  Great  Britain  ? — Yes  ; 
they  threatened  invasions  of  England  from  1792  to  1797,  and 
afterwards,  under  Bonaparte,  from  1802  till  1804,  but  desisted 
from  the  attempt.  They  effected,  however,  an  invasion  of 
Ireland  in  1798,  in  order  to  render  aid  to  the  Irish  rebels, 
but  were  speedily  made  prisoners. 

83.  When  did  the  Irish  Rebellion  take  place  ? — It  broke  out 
in  1798,  just  before  the  landing  of  the  French,  and  was  soon 
extinguished. 

84.  What  was  the  cause  of  this  rebellion  f — It  was  hopeless- 
ness in  procuring  redress  of  a  variety  of  serious  national 
grievances  by  lawful  and  constitutional  means.  Though  de- 
feat =id,  the  rebellion  caused  the  government  to  turn  atten- 
tion 'o  Ireland,  with  a  view  to  a  union  with  Great  Britain. 

85.  When  did  the  Union  with  Ireland  take  place  ? — It  took 
place  on  the  ist  January,  1801  ;  by  this  event  the  Irish 
parliament  was  abolished,  and  the  Irish  sent  representatives 
to  the  parliament  at  Westminster,  which  was  now  called  the 
Imperial  Parliament. 

86.  Was  the  union  popular  in  Ireland? — No  ;  it  was  almost 
universally  opposed  ;  but  the  measure,  as  in  the  case  of  Scot- 
land, was  carried  by  the  liberal  administration  of  bribes  and 
government   patronage   among  the   native   legislators.     By 


Crcjesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  "Wealth.— See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   t>y   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


BRITISH  HISTORY,  367 

this  union,  however,  Ireland  obtained  many  important  com- 
mercial and  social  benefits. 

Zj.  Was  any  change  made  on  the  British  flag  at  the  Uiiin 
with  Ireland? — Yes  ;  certain  white  streaks  were  blended — in 
the  language  of  Yi^x-dXdiXy,  fimbriated — with  the  crosses  of  St. 
George  and  St.  Andrew.  So  altered,  the  Union  Jack  became 
as  we  now  see  it. 

88.  What  were  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  ? — They  were 
decrees  issued  by  Napoleon,  the  first  in  1806,  and  the  sec- 
ond in  1807,  interdicting  any  commerce  with  England,  and 
declariag  the  British  Islands  in  a  state  of  blockade — the  ob- 
ject of  the  decrees  being  to  damage  the  trade  of  Great 
Britain. 

89.  What  were  the  "  Orders  in  Council  ?" — They  were  decrees 
or  orders  issued  by  the  British  Privy  Council,  in  1807,  as  re- 
prisals for  Napoleon's  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees.  By  these 
"  orders,"  all  trade  was  interdicted  with  ports  occupied  by  the 
French. 

90.  What  was  the  "Right  of  Search  f" — It  was  a  right  as- 
sumed by  Great  Britain  to  search  the  ships  of  the  United 
States  for  sailors  who  were  British  subjects.  The  exercise 
of  this  right,  along  with  other  grounds  of  complaint,  caused 
the  United  States  to  declare  war  against  Great  Britain,  June, 
1812. 

91.  How  long  did  this  American  war  last? — It  lasted  until 
December,  1814,  and  increased  the  troubles  arising  out  of  the 
war  in  the  Peninsula. 

92.  What  was  the  Peninsular  war  .?•— It  was  a  part  of  the 
great  French  war  carried  on  in  Spain,  with  a  view  to  drive 
the  French  out  of  that  country;  it  began  in  1808,  and  termi- 
nated at  the  general  peace  in  1814. 

93.  Who  were  the  noted  British  commanders  in  the  Penin^ 
sular  War  ? — Sir  John  Moore,  and  latterly  Sir  Arthur  Welles- 
ley,  who  was  raised  to  the  peerage  under  the  title  of  Lord 
Wellington. 

94.  What  was  the  fate  of  Sir  John  Moore? — He  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Corunna,  January  16,  1809,  and  buried  on  the 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second. — See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821. — See  page  411. 


368 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


ramparts  in  his  military  cloak.     He  is  chiefly  memorable  foi 
his  masterly  retreat  before  a  superior  force. 

95.  What  was  the  career  of  Lord  Wellington  .?— He  gained 
a  succession  of  brilliant  victories  in  the  Peninsula,  and  for 
his  signal  services  was  created  Duke  of  WeUington.  The 
greatest  of  his  battles  was  that  of  Waterloo. 

96.  When  was  the  battle  of  Waterloo  fought  ? — It  was  fought 
on  the  j8th  of  June,  1815;  and  was  a  final  struggle  of  the 
British  and  their  alhes  against  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Empe- 
ror of  the  French.  The  British  forces  under  Wellington 
were  completely  victorious,  and  Napoleon  was  exiled  to  St. 
Helena,  where  he  died,  5th  May,  1821. 

97.  How  long  did  the  Duke  of  Wellington  survive? — He 
lived  a  number  of  years  after  the  restoration  of  peace,  and 
was  distinguished  as  a  statesman  ;  he  died  1852,  and  was 
honored  with  a  public  funeral,  when  his  remains  were  de- 
posited in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

98.  What  were  the  effects  of  the  great  French  war  on  Eng- 
land?— Besides  causing  a  great  loss  of  life, embarrassing  trade 
and  commerce,  and  retarding  social  advancement,  the  war 
added  six  hundred  millions  to  the  national  debt. 

99.  Did  the  useful  arts  advance  during  the  war  .?— Yes  ;  but 
very  slowly,  for  the  country  was  for  years  almost  entirely 
occupied  with  military  affairs. 

100.  Mention  some  of  the  mechanical  and  other  itnprovements 
during  the  progress  of  the  war. — The  manufacture  of  paper 
by  machinery  was  perfected  in  1807;  steam-navigation  was 
introduced  about  1812  ;  printing  machinery  came  into  use  in 
1814;  and  in  the  same  year  lighting  with  gas  was  employed 
in  the  streets  of  London. 

loi.  What  family  had  George  III.? — He  had  a  large  family 
of  sons  and  daughters.  His  sons  were,  George  Prince  of 
Wales,  Frederick  Duke  of  York,  William-Henry  Duke  of 
Clarence,  Edward  Duke  of  Kent,  Ernest-Augustus,  Duke  of 
Cumberland,  Augustus-Frederick  Duke  of  Sussex,  and  Adol' 
phus-Frederick  Duke  of  Cambridge- 

102.  What  was  the  Regency? — It  was  the  government  under 
George  Prince  of  Wales,  who  was  appointed  Prince  Regent 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients.— See    page    ii8. 


CO 


BRITISH  HIS  TOR  V. 


;69 


in  1811,  in  consequence  of  the  aberration  of  intellect  of  the 
king.     This  regency  lasted  until  the  death  of  George  III. 

103.  What  was  the  state  of  the  nation  under  the  Regency  f— 
After  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  there  was  great  national  de- 
pression, and  various  political  disturbances. 

104.  Who  was  the  Princess  Charlotte  ? — She  was  the  daugh- 
ter and  only  child  of  George  Prince  Regent,  and  was  married 
to  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Cobourg  in  1816.  To  the  inex- 
pressible grief  of  the  nation,  the  princess  died  in  November, 
1817. 

105.  When  did  George  III.  die? — He  died  January  29,  1820, 
in  his  eighty>second  year,  after  a  long  reign  of  nearly  sixty 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  George  Prince  Regent  under 
the  title  of  George  IV. 

106.  What  legal  meliorations  took  place  in  the  reign  of  George 
IV.? — Certain  harsh  enactments,  called  the  "Test  and  Cor- 
poration Acts,"  passed  in  1673,  excluding  Dissenters  and 
Roman  Catholics  from  holding  any  civil  or  military  offices. 
They  were  abolished  in  1828,  and  the  acts  imposing  various 
legal  disabilities  on  Roman  Catholics  were  repealed  in  1829. 

107.  When  did  George  IV.  die? — He  died  26th  June,  1830, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  next  surviving  brother,  the  Duke 
of  Clarence,  who  ascended  the  throne  as  William  IV. 

108.  What  were  the  Reform  Bills  ? — They  were  bills  intro- 
duced into  parliament  between  1831  and  1832,  for  altering 
and  extending  the  system  of  representation  in  parliament, 
by  which  large  numbers  of  persons  were  to  be  admitted  to 
the  privilege  of  being  electors.  The  first  two  bills  were 
thrown  out  after  great  debating  and  partial  success  on  the 
part  of  the  Reformers,  but  the  third  passed  in  1832.  An  ad- 
ditional bill  was  afterwards  passed  for  reforming  the  muni- 
cipal corporations. 

109.  What  was  practically  the  effect  of  these  Reforms? — The 
effect  was  a  considerable  change  in  the  political  constitution 
of  the  country,  by  which  power  was  in  a  certain  degree  trans- 
ferred from  the  aristocracy  to  the  middle  classes. 

1 10.  When  was  slavery  abolished  throughout  the  British  pos- 


« 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles— See    page 


23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


S 


C4 

a 

JO 

xi 
O 


^  «Q  BRITISH  HIS  TOR  Y. 

sessions?— T\\Q'd.c\.  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  was  passed 
1833,  when  parliament  voted  the  sum  of  ;^20,ooo.ooo  as  com- 
pensation to  the  owners  of  slaves ;  all  were  m.ade  free  on  the 
ist  August,  1834,  excepting  those  in  the  East  Indies,  who 
were  freed  in  1838— since  which  time  there  has  not  been  a 
slave  in  any  part  of  the  British  dominions. 

111.  When  did  railways  commence  ?— They  began  in  the  reign 
of  George  IV.,  but  were  not  properly  established  until  the 
reign  of  King  William,  or  from  1830  till  1837. 

112.  When  did  King  William  die  f— He  died  June  20,  1837, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  niece,  Victoria,  daughter  of 
Edward,  Duke  of  Kent. 

1 1 3.  When  did  Hanover  cease  to  belong  to  British  sovereigns  f 
—It  was  relinquished  on  the  death  of  William  IV.,  when,  in 
irirtue  of  the  Salic  law,  it  passed  by  inheritance  to  Ernest, 
Duke  of  (Cumberland,  who  accordingly  became  king  of  Han- 
£)ver.  Hanover,  having  taken  up  arms  against  Prussia  during 
the  Prusso- Austrian  war  of  1866,  was  incorporated  with 
Prussia. 

114.  What  is  the  Salic  law?— It  is  a  law  adopted  in  certain 
continental  nations,  by  which  females  are  excluded  from  be- 
ing heirs  to  the  throne.  The  term  salic  is  of  uncertain 
origin. 

115.  Whom  did  Queen  Victoria  marry  ?— Hex  Majesty  mar- 
ried Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Cobourg,  February  10,  1840; 
Prince  Albert  was  afterwards  styled  the  Prince  Consort. 

116.  What  were  the  Corn  Laws .?— They  were  certain  statutory 
enactments  for  restraining  the  importation  of  foreign  corn  ; 
these  laws  were  of  old  date,  but  were  confirmed  and  strength. 
ened  by  an  act  of  parliament,  18 14. 

117.  What  was  the  prof  essed  object  of  the  Corn  Laws  ? -li 
was  to  encourage  the  growth  of  corn  in  the  United  Kingdom 
and  to  sustain  the  agriculture  of  the  country.  Other  reasons 
were  assigned,  but  the  practical  effect  of  all  the  laws  on  the 
subject  was  to  raise  the  price  of  bread. 

1 18.  What  was  the  Anti-corn-law  League  ? — It  was  an  asso- 
ciation in  England,  founded  in  1834,  to  agitate  for  a  repeal  of 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in   Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   Gods. — See  page    248. 


BRITISH  HISTOR  Y.  371 

the  corn  laws,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  injurious  to  pub- 
lic and  private  interests.  After  much  discuss'on,  they  were 
repealed  by  Sir  Robert  Peel,  an  eminent  statesman,  1846. 

119.  Who  was  Richard  Cobden  ? — He  was  a  leading  member 
of  the  Anti-corn-law  League,  and  member  of  parliament,  who 
did  signal  service  by  promoting  free-trade,  and  elTecting  a 
beneficial  treaty  of  commerce  with  France.     He  died  in  1865. 

120.  What  was  the  Crimean  War? — It  was  a  war  by  the 
British  and  French  against  Russia,  in  order  to  check  the  en- 
croachments of  that  power  on  Turkey.  It  was  called  Crimean, 
from  being  chiefly  carried  on  in  the  Crimea,  a  peninsula 
north  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  war  ended  in  1856,  by  Russia 
agreeing  to  respect  the  independence  of  Turkey. 

121.  Under  what  form  of  government  did  British  India  rise 
/o  importance? — Under  the  government  of  a  great  commer- 
cial association,  called  the  East  India  Company,  the  admin- 
istration being  conducted  by  directors  in  London. 

122.  When  was  the  East  India  company  constituted? — It  was 
constituted  by  royal  charter,  1600 ;  but  it  had  many  subse- 
quent charters  extending  its  powers,  which  embraced  the 
■employment  of  an  army  composed  chiefly  of  Sepoys  or  natives 
of  India. 

123.  How  did  the  Company  extend  its  dominion  over  India  ? 
— From  a  small  beginning  at  Calcutta,  it  extended  its  terri- 
tories by  gifts  from,  and  wars  against,  native  princes  ;  in  the 
course  of  which  wars,  several  Englishmen  greatly  distin- 
guished themselves. 

1 24.  Mention  some  of  the  persons  who  rose  to  note  by  their  ser^ 
vices  in  India. — Clive,  Warren  Hastings,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley, 
Sir  Charles  Napier,  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  and  Sir  Hugh  Rose. 

125.  What  was  the  Indian  Revolt  ? — It  was  a  wide-spread  re- 
bellion which  broke  out  in  India  in  1857  against  the  British 
authority  ;  the  rebels  being  chiefly  Sepoys,  or  native  soldiers 
in  the  pay  of  government.  This  revolt  was  suppressed  by  a 
strong  military  force  under  Sir  Colin  Campbell  in  1858. 

1 26.  When  did  the  government  of  the  East  India  Company 
terminate? — It  came  to  a  close  November  i,  1858,  when  the 
direct  sovereignty  of  the  Queen  was  substituted  fc^x  the  ruler 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


372 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 


of  the  Company — this  change  having  taken  place  partly  on 
account  of  the  revolt  in  India,  1857. 

127.  When  did  the  Prince  Consort  die  ? — He  died,  to  the  grief, 
of  the  whole  nation,  December  14,  1861. 

128.  Who  is  the  Heir-apparent  to  the  throne? — Albert- 
Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  born  9th  November  1841,  who  mar- 
ried the  Princess  Alexandra  of  Denmark,  loth  March,  1863. 

1 29.  What  was  the  Abyssinian  Expedition  ? — It  was  an  army, 
under  the  command  of  Sir  R.  Napier  (afterwards  Lord  Napier), 
sent  in  1867  to  deliver  certain  British  subjects,  who  had  been 
kept  in  captivity  by  Theodore,  king  of  Abyssinia.  His 
stronghold,  Magdala,  was  taken  by  storm  on  13th  April,  1868, 
the  prisoners  having  previously  been  given  up.  After  the 
siege,  the  dead  body  of  Theodore  was  found  on  the  field. 

130.  When  was  the  Irish  Church  disestablished? — The  Irish 
Church  was  disestablished  on  January  i,  1871. 

131.  What  zvas  the  Ashantee  War? — It  was  a  war  against 
Coffee  Calcalli,  king  of  Ashantee,  who  had  overrun  the  ter- 
ritories of  our  allies,  the  Fantees,  and  threatened  the  British 
settlement  on  the  Gold  Coast  of  Africa.  After  his  capital, 
Coomassie,  was  burned,  a  treaty  was  concluded. 

132.  What  is  the  annual  income  of  the  United  Kingdom? — 
It  is  upwards  of  ;^7o,ooo,oco ;  from  which,  after  deducting 
payment  of  interest  on  the  National  debt,  there  is  a  balance 
of  about  ;^44,ooo,ooo,  for  all  the  expenses  of  government. 

133.  What  is  now  the  amount  of  the  National  Debt? — It 
amounts  to  about  ;!^790,ooo,ooo,  necessitating  the  payment  of 
an  annual  interest  of  about  £26,000,000. 

134.  Mention  some  particulars  showing  the  progress  of  the 
nation  since  the  Union  of  England  and  Scotland  in  1 707  : 

1.  The  population  of  England  and  Wales  has  risen  from 
little  more  than  5,000,000  to  nearly  23,000,000. 

2.  The  population  of  Scotland  has  risen  from  under  1,000,- 
000  to  upwards  of  3,000,000. 

3.  The  population  of  London  and  its  suburbs  has  risen  from 
500,000  to  upwards  of  3,000,000. 

4.  From  being  a  poor  country  with  little  trade,  Scotland 


The    Bastile   was  a   Prison   in    Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page   407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity, — See  page  54. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 


373 


has  made  immense  advances  in  agriculture,  trade,  manufac- 
tures, and  the  arts  generally;  in  particular,  its  revenue  to 
government  has  risen  from  ;^i  10,000  to  ;^8, 500,000,  and  the 
population  of  Glasgow  has  risen  from  13,000  to  nearly  500,000. 
5.  Commercial  and  manufacturing  industries  have  made 
immense  progress  ;  and  exports  from  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land have  risen  from  an  insignificant  amount  to  be  upwards 
of  ;^3oo, 000,000  annually. 

135.  To  what  is  the  great  prosperity  of  the  United  Kingdom 
owing? — Among  other  noted  causes  are  : 

1.  A  settled  constitutional  government,  free  of  any  conten- 
tions respecting  the  right  to  the  crown,  such  as  long  dis- 
tracted the  country. 

2.  Universal  respect  for  the  law,  which  is  everywhere  ad- 
ministered with  good-temper  and  uprightness. 

3.  Numerous  and  most  important  mechanical  improvements, 
particularly  the  introduction  of  steam  as  a  means  of  moving 
machinery. 

4.  The  freedom  enjoyed  by  all  in  their  daily  pursuits — a 
degree  of  freedom  which  cannot  possibly  exist  in  countries 
where  the  people  are  disposed  to  conspire  against  public 
authority,  or  break  into  disorder. 

5.  The  prevalence  of  religious  instruction  and  general  edu- 
cation ;  also,  the  very  general  diffusion  of  literature  and  a 
taste  for  reading. 


MODERN   CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 
France  until  1560. 

1.  Whowas  St.  Louis  f — He  was  Louis  IX.  of  France,  who 
was  distinguished  for  his  piety  and  heroism  ;  he  perished  in 
one  of  the  Crusades,  1270,  and  was  afterwards  canonized  by 
the  pope — hence  the  designation  St.  Louis. 

2.  When  were  the  States  General  first  assembled  in  France  ?— 
The  States  General  {Etats  G/n&aux)  were  first  assembled  in 

16  A 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


374  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 

1302  by  Philippe    IV.,  at   which   meeting   the  tiers  etat,  ol 
burgher  class,  appeared  with  the  nobles  and  clergy. 

3.  Was  the  establishment  of  free  cities  successful  in  France^ 
No;  the  wealthy  and  free  cities  of  France  and  the  Nether- 
lands excited  the  alarm  of  the  feudal  nobility,  who  crushed 
them  with  overpowering  forces  in  the  14th  century. 

4.  When  were  the  English  expelled  from  France .?— They  were 
expelled  from  all  parts  except  Calais  in  1453,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.  of  England  and  Charles  VII.  of  France,  their  ex« 
pulsion  being  mainly  due  to  Joan  of  Arc. 

5.  Who  was  Joan  of  Arc  F— She  was  an  illiterate  French 
-naiden  of  the  village  of  Domremy,  on  the  borders  of  Lor- 
raine, who,  in  a  fit  of  devout  enthusiasm,  conceived  the  idea 
of  freeing  the  country  from  the  EngHsh.  She  is  sometimes 
called  the  "Maid  of  Orleans." 

6.  What  measures  did  Joan  of  Arc  adopt?— Throw^h  favor 
of  Charles  VII.,  whom  she  persuaded  to  enter  into  her  de- 
signs, she  so  excited  the  French  by  her  patriotic  exhorta- 
tions, that  they  overcame  the  enemy  in  several  encounters. 

7.  What  was  the  fate  of  Joan  of  ArcfShe  was  captured  by 
the  English,  and  condemned  to  death  as  a  sorceress  ;  this  in- 
trepid young  woman  was  cruelly  burned  at  the  stake,  1431. 
The  English  were  forced  to  relinquish  all  their  possessions, 
except  Calais,  within  20  years  afterwards. 

8.  How  was  modern  France  consolidated ? — By  the  expulsion 
of  the  English,  and  the  absorption  of  various  provinces. 
which  were  once  held  as  fiefs  of  the  sovereign  ;  by  which 
means  a  powerful  kingdom  or  empire  has  been  constructed 
out  of  many  detached  or  ill-combined  parts. 

9.  Who  was  Louis  XI.  f— He  was  son  of  Charles  VII.,  and 
was  noted  for  his  craftiness  and  superstition,  but  also  for 
effecting  many  useful  improvements;  he  had  some  strange 
contentions  with  the  famed  Duke  of  Burgundy. 

10.  Who  was  the  famed  Duke  of  Burgundy  ?— We  was 
Charles,  usually  called  Charles  the  Bold,  who  held  his  duke- 
dom as  a  fief  of  the  French  crown  ;  but  in  reality  Charles 
acted  very  much  as  an  independent  sovereign,  lived  in  great 


The   Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought   June    i8,    1815. — See   page    368. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  375 

state  at  Dijon,  and  on  one  occasion,  when  Louis  XL  visited 
Peronne,  had  the  audacity  to  imprison  him,  1468.  A  few  years 
later,  1477,  on  the  death  of  Charles,  without  male  issue.  Bur- 
gundy was  incorporated  with  France. 

1 1 .  How  did  Louis  XL  acquire  the  mastery  of  his  domin- 
io7is  ? — By  the  aid  of  a  regular  standing  army,  which  was  be- 
gun to  be  formed  in  the  reign  of  his  father,  Charles  VIL — 
the  first  instance  of  a  regular  hired  force  in  Europe. 

12.  What  was  Louis  XL  styled? — He  was  the  first  king  of 
France  who  was  styled  "  His  most  Christian  Majesty."  Louis 
XL  died  in  1483,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  VHL 

13.  Who  succeeded  Charles  VLLL.f — Louis  XH.,  who  was 
noted  for  his  many  excellent  qualities,  and  gained  the  title 
of  "  father  of  his  people." 

14.  Whom  did  Louis  XIL.  marry  ? — He  married,  first,  Anne 
of  Brittany,  by  which  event  that  duchy  was  united  to  the 
crown  of  France.  By  Anne,  he  had  a  daughter,  who  was 
married  to  Francis,  Count  of  Angouleme,  who  ascended  the 
throne  as  Francis  L  {Francois Premier).  Second,  Louis  mar- 
ried Mary,  daughter  of  Henry  VH.  of  England.  Louis  XH. 
died  1515. 

15.  What  was  the  character  of  Francis  I.  ? — He  was  one  of 
the  most  eminent  sovereigns  of  France,  distinguished  for 
his  dashing  bravery,  his  taste,  and  patronage  of  arts  and 
literature ;  but  his  cruelties  have  left  a  stain  on  his  memory. 
He  was  contemporary  with  Henry  VHL  of  England. 

16.  What  was  the ''Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold T— That  wa.s 
the  name  given  to  an  open  field  near  Calais,  where,  in  1520, 
Francis  Land  Henry  VHL  held  an  interview,  which,  with 
various  sports,  lasted  eighteen  days.  The  name  was  given  on 
account  of  the  splendor  of  the  two  courts  on  the  occasion. 

17.  Who  was  the  Chevalier  Bayard? — He  was  a  French 
knight,  eminent  for  his  bravery,  love  of  justice,  and  general 
integrity  of  character.  Bayard  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Francis  L,  and  was  slain  by  an  arrow,  1524.  In  literature,  he 
is  called  the  knight  "  sans peur  et  sansreproche." 

18.  What  was  the  battle  of  Pavia  ? — It  was  a  battle  fought 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


■William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


t 


376  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 

by  the  French  under  Francis  I.  at  Pavia,  in  Lombardy, 
against  the  forces  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  1525.  In  this 
battle  the  French  were  defeated,  and  their  king  taken  pris- 
oner. On  this  occasion,  in  a  letter  to  his  mother,  Francis 
wrote  the  often-quoted  words:  "All  is  lost  but  honor." 

19.  What  was  the  subsequent  career  of  Francis  I.  ? — He  was 
set  at  liberty,  resumed  his  government,  and  died  1547. 

20.  Who  succeeded  Francis  IJ — His  son  Henry  H.,  who 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  \\.,  a  youth  who  was  mar- 
ried to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  but  died  after  a  short  reign  of 
two  years,  1 560. 

21.  Who  were  the  Dukes  of  Guise? — They  were  a  noted 
family  in  France  during  the  15th  and  i6th  centuries,  morf 
particularly  in  the  reign  of  Francis  H.  One  of  them  took 
Calais  from  the  English. 

22.  WJten  was  Calais  taken  fro7n  the  English  ? — It  was  cap- 
tured by  Francis,  second  Duke  of  Guise,  1558.  This  duke 
was  uncle  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and  it  was  through  his 
influence  that  she  was  married  to  the  king  of  France. 

23.  How  long  was  Calais  in  the  hands  of  the  English  ? — From 
1347  to  1558,  or  upwards  of  200  years;  the  principal  church 
survives  as  a  relic  of  the  English  occupation. 

24.  Who  succeeded  Francis  11. ?—\{.\shxo\)[vQX,Q\i-aiX\^^  IX.; 
but  being  a  minor,  his  government  was  administered  by  his 
mother,  Catharine  de'  Medici,  a  woman  of  an  imperious 
character. 

AustHa  and  Switzerland, 

25.  To  what  does  Austria  trace  its  national  importance  ?—To 
the  consolidation  of  various  provinces  on  the  accession  of 
the  Hapsburg  dynasty,  towards  the  end  of  the  13th  century. 

26.  What  was  the  Hapsburg  Dynasty  ?—\t  was  a  family  of 
note  which  had  long  occupied  the  castle  of  Hapsburg,  or 
Habsburg,  near  Brugg,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Aar,  Switzer- 
land. One  of  the  princes  of  this  ancient  house,  Rudolph 
who  was  elected  Emperor  of  Germany,  acquired  the  duchy  of 
Austria  and  other  possessions,  to  which  his  son,  Albrecht  T, 
succeeded,  1291,  with  whom  properly  begins  the  history  of 
Austria. 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in   1588. — See   page  330. 


The   Great   Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long. — See    page    302. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY, 


377 


27.  Who  were  the  Magyars  ? — They  were  the  early  inhabit- 
ants of  Hungary,  and  are  beHeved  to  have  been  of  Scythian 
origin  ;  the  Hungarians  still  call  themselves  Magyars. 

28.  When  did  Hungary  attain  to  the  dignity  of  a  kingdom  f — ■ 
In  the  year  1000;  the  first  king  was  Stephen  I.,  who  was 
crowned  with  a  crown  sent  to  him  by  Pope  Sylvester  II. 

29.  Were  the  Hungarians  troubled  with  the  Turks  ? — Yes  ; 
the  Turks  were  for  ages  a  trouble  to  Hungary,  which,  under 
the  brave  Magyars,  with  their  splendid  cavalry,  served  as 
a  species  of  bulwark  against  the  Turks — in  this  respect  emu- 
lating the  Poles. 

30.  Who  was  Matthias  Corvinus? — He  was  king  of  Hun- 
gary at  the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  and  eminent  for  his 
valor,  love  of  justice,  learning,  and  the  various  improve- 
ments he  effected  in  the  country ;  in  1467,  he  founded  the 
university  of  Presburg. 

31.  Who  was  Ferdinajtd  I.  of  Austria  ?— He  was  brother  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  and  ultimately  inherited  from  him 
his  German  possessions. 

32.  Whoin  did  Ferdinand  I.  marry  ? — He  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  Louis  II.,  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  on  whose 
death,  1526,  he  claimed  these  possessions,  to  which,  after 
some  national  troubles,  he  succeeded.  The  connection  of 
Austria  with  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  therefore,  dates  from 
1526. 

33.  How  did  Hungary  happen  to  be  attached  to  Bohemia? — 
Ladislaus,  the  father  of  Louis  II.,  was  king  of  Bohemia, 
and  while  retaining  that  dignity,  was  elected  king  of  Hun- 
gary, to  which  country  he  removed. 

34.  Was  Hungary  thoroughly  merged  in  the  Archduchy  of 
Austria  f—'^o',  the  Austrian  rulers  enjoyed  the  Hungarian 
crown  as  a  thing  separate  from  Austria,  and  by  various  suc- 
cessors of  Ferdinand  I.,  including  the  famed  Maria-Theresa, 
the  people  of  Hungary  were  insured  the  continuance  of  their 
separate  national  institutions. 

35.  What  was  the  condition  of  Switzerland  in  the  middlt 
agesf—C^W^A  Helvetia  by  the  Romans,  Switzerland,  about 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators.— See    page    278. 


378 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 


700  years  ago,  was  possessed  by  various  hereditary  duke^ 
counts,  and  otiier  nobles,  from  whom  the  people  wrested 
their  liberty,  and  were  able  to  form  free  communities,  called 
cantons. 

36.  How  did  Albrecht  I.  treat  the  Swiss? — As  emperor  of 
Germany,  he  abused  his  power  over  the  Swiss,  some  of  whose 
free  towns  he  wished  to  incorporate  with  his  family  posses- 
sions. Resisting  these  efforts,  the  Swiss  formed  a  confedera- 
tion of  cantons,  and  commenced  a  memorable  struggle  for 
civil  liberty. 

37.  Who  was  William  Tell? — He  was  a  young  Swiss  peas- 
ant of  the  Canton  of  Uri,  who  intrepidly  resisted  the  oppres- 
sive measures  of  Gessler,  an  Austrian  governor,  whom  Al- 
brecht had  installed  in  the  castle  of  Brunegg,  to  subdue  the 
adjoining  district. 

38.  What  is  the  legend  of  Tell  and  the  Apple? — It  is  said 
that  Tell,  having  been  taken  prisoner  by  Gessler,  was  prom- 
ised his  liberty  if  he  could,  with  an  arrow  from  a  bow,  hit  an 
apple  placed  on  the  head  of  his  son.  This  feat  he  accom- 
plished in  the  market-place  of  Altorf,  1307.  Gessler,  incensed, 
did  not  keep  his  promise  ;  but  Tell  afterwards  escaped,  and 
headed  a  formidable  insurrection  against  the  Austrian  au- 
thority. The  legend  of  Tell  and  the  Apple  rests  on  no 
good  authority,  but  is  generally  related. 

39.  What  was  the  battle  of  Morgarten  ?— It  was  a  victory 
gained  by  the  confederate  Swiss  over  the  forces  of  Leopold 
of  Austria  (a  successor  of  Albrecht),  131 5. 

40.  What  was  the  battle  of  Sempach  ? — The  battle  of  Sem- 
pach  was  the  second  great  victory  gained  by  the  Swiss  over 
the  Austrians,  and  was  fought  in  1336. 

41.  What  is  the  legend  concerning  Arnold  of  Winkelried ?-~ 
Arnold,  it  is  said,  was  a  Swiss  Knight  of  Unterwalden,  who, 
by  an  extraordinary  act  of  patriotism,  at  the  sacrifice  of  his 
own  life,  secured  the  victory  of  Sempach  to  his  country- 
men. 

42.  Relate  this  remarkable  feat. — The  Austrians,  advancing 
in  a  close  column,  with  their  lances  pointed,  the  Swiss 
seemed  likely  to  be  borne  down,  when  Arnold,  uttering  the 


Z 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist    and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See   page    133. 


c 
c 

(4 

c 
o 


o 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  379 

cry  :  "  Protect  my  wife  and  children,  and  I  will  open  a  path 
to  freedom,"  rushed  forward,  and  gathered  several  lances  in 
his  arms  and  bosom  ;  whereupon  the  Swiss  took  advantage 
of  the  gap,  and  broke  the  phalanx. 

43.  By  what  English  poet  has  this  noble  act  of  devotion  been 
commetnorated ? — Wordsworth  has  the  following  lines  on  the 
subject : 

"  He  of  battle-martyrs  chief  ! 
Who,  to  recall  his  daunted  peers, 
For  victory  shaped  an  open  space, 
By  gath'ring  in  a  wide  embrace, 
Into  his  single  heart,  a  sheaf 
Of  fatal  Austrian  spears." 

44.  What  was  the  battle  of  Grandson  f — It  was  a  victory 
gained  by  the  confederate  Swiss  over  the  forces  of  Charles 
the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  near  Grandson,  on  the  Lake  of  Neuf- 
chatel,  1476. 

45.  What  was  the  battle  of  Moral  f—ThQ  battle  of  Morat 
(or  Murten)  was  a  second  victory  of  the  Swiss  over  the  Bur 
gundians.  It  was  fought  near  the  town  and  lake  of  Mora) 
shortly  after  the  victory  of  Grandson,  1476.  The  loss  of  the 
Burgundians  was  immense,  and  the  bones  of  the  slain  lay  in 
heaps  on  the  ground  for  more  than  300  years. 

46.  What  English  poet  refers  to  these  ghastly  trophies?— 
Lord  Byron,  in  Childe  Harold,  has  the  following  lines  on  th* 
field  of  Morat : 

*'  There  is  a  spot  should  not  be  pass'd  in  vain — 
Morat !  the  proud,  the  patriot  field  !  where  man 
May  gaze  on  ghastly  trophies  of  the  slain, 
Nor  blush  for  those  who  conquered  on  that  plain. 
Here  Burgundy  bequeathed  his  tombless  host, 
A  bony  heap  through  ages  to  remain  ; 
Themselves  the  monument." 

47.  When  was  Charles  the  Bold  killed? — He  was  killed  at  the 
siege  of  Nancy,  in  Lorraine,  1477  ;  from  about  which  time  the 
Swiss  were  long  freed  from  foreign  intrusion. 

48.  What  children  did  Charles  the  Bold  leave? — He  left  a 
daughter,  Maria,  who  from  him  inherited  the  Netherlands. 
Maria  married  Maximilian  I.  of  Austria,  by  which  means  the 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle, — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65 

i 


n 


o 


c 
o 

c 

3 


380 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 


Netherlands  became  an  Austrian  possession,  and  was  assigned 
to  Philip,  son  of  MaximiHan  and  Maria. 

49.  Whom  did  Philip  marry .?— He  married  Joanna,  daughtei 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  and  their  son  Charles  in 
herited  Austria,  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  and  some  other  coun- 
tries ;  to  add  to  his  power,  he  was  elected  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, 1519. 

50.  By  what  title  is  Charles  best  known? — He  is  best  known 
in  history  as  the  Emperor  Charles  V. ;  under  him  the  House 
of  Hapsburg  attained  to  a  commanding  influence  in  European 
affairs.  Charles  was  the  contemporary  and  rival  of  Henry 
Vni.  of  England  and  Francis  I.  of  France. 

The  Heforntation. 

51.  What  was  the  Reformation? — It  was  a  great  change  in 
religious  doctrine  and  practice  as  maintained  by  the  Church 
of  Rome,  and  was  in  a  great  degree  founded  on  an  examina- 
tion of  the  Scriptures. 

52.  When  did  the  Reformation  take  place  ? — After  various 
abortive  efforts  by  the  Waldenses,  Albigenses,  the  Hussites, 
and  others,  the  Reformation  took  place  in  Germany  in  the 
early  part  of  the  i6th  century,  whence  with  lessor  more  suc- 
cess it  spread  to  certain  countries  on  the  Continent,  also  to 
England  and  Scotland. 

53.  What  was  thought  of  the  Reformation  by  the  pope  and 
members  of  the  Church  of  Rome  ?—\\,  was  deemed  a  great  schism 
or  heresy,  which  it  was  proper  to  suppress  by  the  arm  of  the 
civil  power.  The  Albigenses  and  some  others,  who  aimed  at 
a  Reformation,  were  effectually  suppressed. 

54.  Who  were  the  Waldenses? — They  were  a  numerous  sect 
in  the  south  of  France,  taking  their  name  from  their  founder, 
Peter  Waldus,  a  citizen  of  Lyons,  about  1170.  The  Waldenses 
underwent  many  persecutions,  and  were  chased  from  coun- 
try to  country ;  finally  they  settled  at  Piedmont,  where  the 
sect  still  exists,  and  are  generally  known  as  "the  Vaudois." 

55.  Who  were  the  Albigenses ?~L\kQ  the  Waldenses,  they 
were  a  numerous  sect  in  the  south  of  France,  who,  about 
1250,  dissented  from  the  doctrines  and  usages  of  the  Church 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C. — See    page    in. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  381 

of  Rome,  and  after  a  time  were  either  extirpated  or  dispersed. 
The  name  Albigenses  was  taken  from  Albi,  capital  of  Langue-^ 
doc,  where  the  sect  first  came  into  notice. 

56.  Who  was  John  Huss  ? — He  was  a  preacher  at  Prague, 
in  Bohemia,  who,  becoming  acquainted  with  the  writings  of 
Wickliffe,  adopted  his  doctrines.  On  a  charge  of  heresy,  he 
was  tried  and  condemned  at  Constance,  and  publicly  burned 
at  the  stake,  141 5. 

57.  Who  was  Jerome  of  Prague  ? — He  was  a  companion  of 
Huss,  who,  like  him,  adopted  Wickliffe's  doctrines,  and  in 
like  manner  was  condemned  and  burned  at  the  stake  at  Con- 
stance, 1 41 6. 

58.  Who  were  the" Huguenots  ? — They  were  a  numerous  body 
in  France,  embracing  many  distinguished  nobles,  who  pro- 
fessed Reformed  doctrines.  The  origin  of  the  term  Hugue- 
not is  unknown. 

59.  Were  the  Huguenots  persecuted? — Yes ;  many  of  them 
were  condemned  and  burned  at  the  stake  in  the  reign  of 
Francis  L,  and  under  his  grandson,  Charles  IX.,  they  were 
exposed  to  a  series  of  cruel  persecutions. 

60.  What  was  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  ? — It  was  a 
massacre  of  Huguenots  in  Paris  on  the  night  of  St.  Barthol- 
omew, between  the  24th  and  25th  of  August,  1572.  The 
slaughter  extended  to  the  provinces,  and  it  is  reckoned  that 
altogether  30,000  persons  were  murdered.  This  appalling 
event  occurred  during  the  minority  of  Charles  IX.,  and  on 
his  mother,  Catharine  de'  Medici,  rests 
the  stigma  of  ordering  the  massacre. 

61.  Who  was  Coligni? — Gaspard  de' 
Coligni,  Admiral  of  France,  was  head 
of  the  Huguenot  party,  and  was  basely 
murdered  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew, on  the  24th  August,  1572. 

62.  Who  was  Martin  Luther? — He 
was  the  great  apostle  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  Germany.  ManirLuther. 

63.  Mention  some  facts  concerning  Luther. — He  was  a  native 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors.— See    page    243, 


382 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 


of  Saxony,  and  began  life  as  a  priest  in  the  church  of  Rome; 
but  being  shocked  with  the  profligate  sale  of  Indulgences 
by  a  monk  named  Tetzel,  who  acted  under  a  commission 
from  Pope  Leo  X.,  he  at  length  threw  off  his  allegiance  to 
the  church,  and  began  to  preach  certain  Reformed  doctrines. 

64.  What  prince  was  favorable  to  Luther? — Frederick,  elec- 
tor of  Saxony,  under  whose  auspices  he  propagated  his  opin- 
ions and  made  converts,  1517  to  1521. 

65.  What  was  the  Diet  of  Worms? — It  was  an  assembly  of 
princes,  temporal  and  spiritual,  of  the  German  Empire,  April 
17,  1521,  at  Worms,  a  city  on  the  Rhine,  to  which  Luther  was 
summoned  to  retract  his  errors.  Luther  attended,  but  would 
not  retract,  and  having  a  safe-conduct,  was  suffered  to  de- 
part. The  president  of  this  famed  assembly  was  the  Emperor 
Charles  V. 

66.  Who  was  Melancthon  ? — He  was  a  person  of  a  gentle 
and  amiable  character,  a  professor  of  Greek  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Wittenberg;  having  adopted  the  opinions  of  Luther, 
he  was  serviceable  in  propagating  them  among  his  country- 
men. His  real  name  was  Schwarzerd — literally"  Black  Earth," 
which  became  J/^/^;z^/^^«,  translated  into  Greek.  It  was  at 
one  time  custorriary  for  scholars  to  translate  their  surnames 
into  Greek  or  Latin. 

67.  How  did  the  term  Protestant  originate  ? — A  diet  of  the 
German  Empire  convoked  at  Spires,  1529,  issued  a  decree 
confirming  an  edict  published  at  Worms  against  Luther, 
and  prohibiting  any  further  innovations  in  religion.  Cer- 
tain princes  of  the  empire  having  solemnly  protested  against 
this  decree,  received  the  name  Protestants,  and  the  appella- 
tion has  since  been  given  generally  to  all  who  dissent  from 
the  Church  of  Rome. 

68.  What  was  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  ? — It  was  a  sys- 
tem of  Protestant  opinions  composed  by  Melancthon,  and 
presented  to  a  diet  of  the  German  empire  at  Augsburg, 
1 530.  This  confession  of  Augsburg  continues  to  be  the  creed 
of  the  Lutheran  church  in  Germany. 

69.  What  was  the  ultimate  career  of  Luther? — He  threw  off 
his  monastic  dress,  1524,  and  married,  1525.     Under  the  pro' 


Croesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth.— See   page   234. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by  John    Guttenberg. — See    page   305. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTOR  V, 


3S3 


tection  of  several  German  princes,  he  continued  to  preach 
the  Reformed  doctrines,  until  his  death,  1546.  Luther  was 
a  person  of  vigorous  mind,  fearless  in  asserting  what  he  be 
lieved  to  be  the  truth,  and  genial  in  his  social  relations. 

70.  IV/io  was  Zwingli  f — Zwingli  or  Zuinglius,  was  a  priest 
of  the  canton  of  Glarus,  in  Switzerland,  who,  without  any 
knowledge  of  Luther,  preached,  like  him,  against  the  sale  of 
Indulgences,  1517 — 1518,  and  finally  headed  a  church-reform 
among  the  Swiss. 


'& 


71.  In  what  did  the  Lutheran  differ  from  the  Zwinglian  Re^ 
for?nationf — While  Luther  retained  some  of  the  usages  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  including  that  of  an  episcopal  hierarchy, 
Zwingli  carried  his  views  much  further,  and  originated  a 
church  of  a  democratic  or  Presbyterian  character. 

72.  Who  was  Calvin  ? — John  Calvin,  or  Cauvin,  was  a 
Frenchman,  born  in  Picardy,  1509;  in  the  course  of  his  stu- 
dies, he  embraced  the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  which 
he  began  to  preach.  In  1535,  Calvin  issued  his  famous  Insti- 
tutes of  the  Christian  Religion.  After  a  troublous  career  as  a 
preacher  and  spiritual  and  civil  director  at  Geneva,  he  died 
1564.  Calvin  adhered  to  the  Zwinglian  form  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, which,  under  some  modification,  was  followed  by  Knox, 
and  has  been  embraced  in  Scotland. 

73.  Did  the  early  Reformers  inculcate  toleration  ? — No  ;  as  al- 
ready explained,  freedom  of  opinion  was  not  allowed  even  by 
those  who  had  themselves  been  the  victims  of  persecution. 
Calvin,  for  example,  persecuted  Servetus. 

74.  Who  was  Servetus  ? — He  was  a  person  who  wrote  some 
speculative  treatises  that  were  considered  heretical.  On  a 
charge  of  this  kind,  he  was  tried  at  Geneva,  and  condemned 
to  be  burned  at  the  stake,  1553 — a  sentence  which  was  put  in 
execution  ;  the  death  was  approved  of  by  Calvin,  and  Calvin's 
conduct  on  the  occasion  was  justified  by  Melancthon.  The 
crime  remains  a  mournful  and  scandalous  blot  on  the  history 
of  the  Reformation. 

75.  Who  was  Beza .?— He  was,  next  to  Calvin,  the  most  ener- 
getic and  influential  of  the  Genevese  reformers.    He  often 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second.— See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Bom  in  Corsica,  1769 ;    Died,  1821.— See  page  411. 


384 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 


preached  in  France,  and  presided  over  the  synods  of  French 
reformers.     He  died  in  1605. 

'jd.  Mention  a  remarkable  fact  concerning  the  Reformation.-^- 
The  most  noticeable  fact  is,  that  the  Reformation  spread  to, 
and  took  root  in,  only  certain  countries,  to  which  it  has  ever 
since  been  mainly  confined.  Quenched  in  France,  Spain, 
Italy,  and  several  of  the  German  States,  no  fresh  outburst  of 
zeal  has  caused  its  revival  on  a  scale  of  national  importance. 
That  the  Reformation  should  have  been  confined  chiefly 
to  the  early  part  of  the  i6th  century,  is  thought  to  be  a  cu- 
rious historical  phenomenon. 

'j'j.  How  was  the  Reformation  quenched  in  certain  countries  f 
— By  persecution  and  military  outrage  ;  it  was  seriously  re- 
tarded by  the  "  Thirty  Years'  War." 

78.  What  was  the  "  Thirty  Years'  War  ?" — It  was  a  war  in 
Continental  Europe,  extending  from  1618  till  1648,  and  though 
not  nominally  so,  was  in  effect  a  war  between  Roman  Catho^ 
lie  and  Protestant  powers.  The  chief  brunt  of  this  frightful 
war  fell  on  various  German  states,  particularly  Bohemia, 
Saxony,  and  the  Palatinate. 

79.  What  was  the  Palatinate  f — It  was  a  small  principality 
on  the  Rhine,  of  which  Heidelberg  was  the  capital.  Its 
prince,  or  elector-palatine,  Frederick,  who  married  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  was,  as  a  Protestant,  elected 
king  of  Bohemia,  1619. 

80.  Who  were  the  contending  parties  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War? — The  elector-palatine,  supported  by  the   Bohemians, 

by  a  large  section  of  the  Protestants  of  Germany,  and  by 
British  and  Dutch  auxiliaries — all  in  the  Protestant  interest. 
Their  antagonists  were  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  the 
German  Roman  Catholic  princes. 

81 .  What  was  the  battle  of  Prague  ? — It  was  a  victory  gained 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  forces  over  the  Protestants  at  Pra- 
gue, 1620;  the  result  being  the  expulsion  of  Frederick  and 
Elizabeth  from  Bohemia. 

82.  Who  were  Tilly  and  Wallenstein  ?— Count  Tilly  and  the 
still  more  famousWallenstein,  Duke  of  Friedland,  were  gene* 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  385 

rals  in  the   Roman    Catholic  interest  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War. 

83.  Who  was  Gustavus  Adolphus  ? — He  was  king  of  Sweden, 
and  known  as  the  "  Lion  of  the  North."  He  undertook  the 
championship  of  German  Protestantism,  1630  ;  and  thousands 
from  England,  Scotland,  and  the  Netherlands,  joined  his 
s'landard.  Under  him,  the  Protestants  gained  many  triumphs, 
and  Tilly  was  slain  in  battle.  Gustavus  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Lutzen,  1632,  which  was  a  great  blow  to  the  Protest- 
ant cause. 

84.  How  did  the  Thirty  Years'  War  terminate? — It  subsided 
into  a  struggle  between  the  emperor  of  Germany  and  the  king 
of  France,  and  was  specially  noted  by  the  brilliant  victories, 
but  also  frightful  cruelties,  of  Marshal  Turenne,  the  French 
general. 

85.  What  was  the  ''Peace  of  Westphalia  f" — It  was  the  treaty 
of  peace  signed  at  Munster,  in  Westphaha,  1648,  putting  an 
end  to  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

France  JBesumed. 

86.  Who  succeeded  Charles  IX.  ? — He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Henry  III.,  at  whose  decease,  1574,  the  House  of 
Valois  became  extinct  in  the  male  line. 

87.  Who  was  Henry  IV.? — Henry  IV.  (Henri  Quatre)  was 
the  son  of  Antoine  de  Bourbon,  and  a  daughter  of  the  king 
of  Navarre.  Henry  inherited  the  kingdom  of  Navarre  from 
his  mother,  and  married  Margaret  of  Valois,  sister  of  Charles 
IX. ;  as  nearest  male  heir,  he  was  raised  to  the  throne  of 
France,  and  became  the  first  monarch  of  the  House  of 
Bourbon. 

88.  How  was  Henry  IV.  educated? — He  was  reared  as  a  Pro- 
testant by  his  mother,  but  afterwards,  as  a  measure  of  na- 
tional pacification,  he  professed  himself  a  Roman  Catholic. 

89.  Who  was  Sully? — De  Rosny,  afterwards  Duke  of  Sully, 
was  minister  to  Henry  IV.,  and  a  man  eminent  for  his  states- 
manship and  literary  tastes.     Under  his  administration  great 

17 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503.-866  page  181. 


O 


386  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 

public    improvements  were   effected    throughout    France; 
Sully  has  left  agreeable  memoirs  of  his  time. 

90.  What  was  the  Edict  of  Nantes  /—It  was  a  decree  of 
Henry  IV.,  published  at  Nantes,  1598,  which  secured  free- 
dom of  religion  to  the  Protestant  portion  of  his  subjects. 
By  this  famous  edict,  the  Huguenots  were  allowed  to  cele- 
brate worship  wherever  Protestant  communities  existed,  to 
build  churches  (except  in  Paris),  and  to  maintain  colleges  of 
learning.  In  virtue  of  these  arrangements,  the  Hugue- 
nots for  a  time  enjoyed  a  legal  status  in  France,  and  had 
numerous  churches. 

91.  What  was  the  great  stronghold  of  the  Huguenots? — 
Rochelle,  a  fortified  city  on  the  sea-shore,  about  100  miles 
northwest  of  Bordeaux. 

92.  Was  Henry  IV.  popular? — Exceedingly  so;  by  the 
nation  generally  he  was  much  esteemed,  and  is  renowned  in 
French  history  as  "  Henry  the  Great." — He  however,  incurred 
the  enmity  of  the  Jesuits  and  others  for  his  liberal  dealings 
with  the  Huguenots,  and  was  assassinated  by  a  wretched 
fanatic  named  Ravaillac,  1610. 

93.  Who  succeeded  Henry  IV.? — He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Louis  XIII.,  whose  sister,  Henrietta,  was  married  to 
Charles  I.  of  England. 

94.  Who  was  Rzchelzeu  ?— Richelieu,  a  man  of  noble  birth, 
was  a  priest  and  cardinal,  and  one  of  the  most  noted  states- 
men of  France.  Rising  by  his  great 
abilities  to  be  minister  of  Louis  XIII., 
he  vastly  added  to  the  imposing  lustre 
of  the  crown,  but  inflicted  correspond- 
k\g  damage  on  the  state. 

95.  Briefly  explain  Richelieu's  policy,  gj 
—It  was  his  primary  aim  to  overthrow 
the  privileges  and  civil  importance  of 
the  nobles.     This  he  effected  not  only 
by  his  public  measures  but  by  the  in- 
sidious   plan    of    attracting    all     aris-  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
tocratic  families  to   Paris,  in  order  to  ruin  them  by  extrav- 
agance, and  deprive  the  rural  districts  of  their  presence. 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,    in    Mythology,  was    the    Food    of  the   Gods — See  page    248. 


m 


3 
cr 

t: 
o 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY, 


1^7 


96.  How  did  Richelieu  treat  the  Htiguenots? — Perceiving  in 
them  a  power  dangerous  to  the  despotic  character  of  the  mon- 
archy, he  assailed  their  privileges,  and  laid  siege  to  their 
stronghold  of  Rochelle. 

97.  How  did  the  siege  of  Rochelle  terminate? — Altera  siege 
of  two  years,  during  which  the  garrison  was  assisted  by  Eng- 
land, Rochelle  was  forced  to  capitulate,  through  famine, 
1629. 

98.  In  what  sense  was  Richelieu  opposed  to  Protestantism? — 
He  opposed  it  mainly  because  it  was  antagonistic,  as  he 
thought,  to  the  unity,  and  therefore  the  grandeur  of  the 
French  monarchy,  which  he  seemed  almost  to  worship  ;  in 
Germany  and  in  Great  Britain,  he  secretly  helped  the  Pro- 
testant cause,  when  by  doing  so  he  in  any  way  weakened  the 
opponents  of  France. 

99.  Was  Richelieu  friendly  to  the  arts? — Yes;  he  was  a 
great  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts,  so  far  as  they  could 
exalt  the  glory  of  France.  Two  of  his  memorable  acts  con- 
sisted in  the  establishment  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  and  the 
French  Academy,  1635,  a  society  which  remains  one  of  the 
most  select  and  learned  bodies  in  Europe. 

100.  When  did  Richelieu  die  ?- -He  died  1642.  A  street  in 
Paris,  in  which  was  his  palace,  is  called,  from  him,  the  Rue 
Richelieu. 

10 1.  When  did  Louis  XIII.  die? — He  died  in  1643,  ^  ^^w 
months  after  his  great  minister  Richelieu  (whom  he  never 
liked,  but  could  not  do  without).  He  left  two  sons,  Louis 
and  Philippe. 

102.  Who  was  Louis  XIV.— He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Louis 
XIIL,  and  was  born  1638.  His  brother,  Philippe,  born  in 
1640,  was  created  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  from  him  the  present 
Orleans  family  is  descended. 

103.  Who  was  Masarin? — He  was  a  priest  and  cardinal, 
who  rose  into  note  on  the  death  of  Richelieu,  and  acted  as 
minister  during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  He  continued 
Richelieu's  policy,  and  is  scarcely  less  renowned  as  a  states- 
man. 

104.  What  was  the*' Parliament  of  Paris?" — It  was  an  an- 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in    the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


388 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 


cient  institution,  with  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  re- 
sembling a  court  of  law,  and  was  composed  of  secular  and 
spiritual  members.  Its  authority  extended  over  the  half  of 
France. 

105.  What  special  privilege  had  the  Parliament  of  Paris  ? — 
Its  most  valued  privilege  was  that  of  considering  and  regis- 
tering edicts  of  the  sovereign,  which,  when  registered,  had 
the  efficacy  of  legislative  measures. 

106.  Were  there  other parliainents  ? — Yes  ;  there  were  several 
provincial  parliaments  possessing  a  jurisdiction  similar  to  that 
of  Paris. 

107.  How  did  Mazarin  come  into  collision  with  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris  ? — He  tried  to  make  it  register  all  royal  edicts 
irrespective  of  their  oppressive  character,  whereupon  the 
members  resisted,  and  a  strong  party  of  nobles  and  others 
broke  into  rebellion. 

108.  What  were  the  Wars  of  the  Fronde? — They  were  civil 
wars  in  France  during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.,  caused  by 
the  oppressive  measures  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.  The  first  out- 
break took  place  in  1648. 

109.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  term  Fronde? — In  French, 
Fronde  signifies  a  sling,  and  Frondeur,  a  slinger.  Frondeur, 
however,  is  popularly  applied  to  any  one  who  rails  at,  or 
throws  out  imputations  on  government.  According  to  these 
latter  significations,  the  wars  of  the  Fronde  or  Frondeurs 
meant  the  "  Wars  of  the  Railers." 

no.  Who  were  the  leading  members  of  the  Fronde  ? — Marshal 
Turenne,  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and  Cardinal  de  Retz,  also 
many  ladies  of  distinction  ;  all  professed  loyalty  to  the  crown, 
but  a  determination  to  overthrow  Mazarin. 

111.  Who  was  the  Prince  of  Conde? — He  was  an  eminent 
member  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  who  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  military  commander  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  and 
is  known  in  history  as  the  "  Great  Conde ;"  he  died  1686. 
The  "  Great  Conde"  was  great-grandson  of  Conde,  a  noted 
leader  of  the  Huguenots. 

112.  When  did  the  Wars  of  the  Fronde  terminate? — After 
about  five  years  of  civil  war,  the  contending  parties  came  to 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page   407. 


or   THE     ^ 

or 


K 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity. — See  page  54. 


bo 

c 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  389 


a  pacification  in  1653.  Mazarin  was  driven  from  power,  but 
resumed  his  ministry,  and  died  in  1661,  from  which  time 
Louis  XIV.  exercised  the  government  principally  himself. 

113.  What  was  the  character  of  Louis  XIV. .?— He  was  the 
most  powerful  of  all  the  French  monarchs,  magnificent  in  his 
personal  appearance,  and  had  the  address  to  render  himself 
popular,  while  he  assumed  an  authority  beyond  all  law  or 
precedent. 

114.  What  was  a  memorable  phrase  of  Louis  XI V.  f — In  al lu- 
sion  to  his  exercise  of  absolute  authority,  he  said :  "L'^tat,  c'est 
moi"  ("  I  am  the  state"). 

115.  How  did  Louis  XIV.  deal  with  the  Parliament  of  Paris  ? 
— The  parliament,  shaken  in  its  power  by  Mazarin,  was  now 
forced  to  register  the  decrees  of  the  court,  and,  like  every 
other  body,  obeyed  the  king  without  reservation. 

116.  Did  Louis  XIV.  rule  with  discretion? — He  had  able 
ministers,  who  in  general  managed  his  affairs  with  much 
skill,  but  his  wars  exhausted  the  nation,  which  he  helped  to 
demoralize  by  his  profligacy. 

1 1 7.  What  were  "  Lettres  de  Cachet  ?" — Lettres  de  Cachet,  or 
Sealed  Letters,  were  decrees  making  known  the  royal  will 
and  pleasure,  and  were  employed  as  warrants  for  secretly 
arresting  individuals,  and  confining  them  in  the  Bastile,  a 
fortified  prison  in  Paris.  Nine  thousand  lettres  de  cachet 
were  issued  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 

118.  What  was  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  f — It 
was  a  decree  of  Louis  XIV.,  issued  in  1685,  revoking  the 
celebrated  Edict  of  Nantes  of  Henry  IV.,  which  gave  protec- 
tion to  the  Protestants  in  France. 

119.  What  ensued  from  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  ? 
— There  ensued  a  bloody  persecution  of  the  Protestants  in 
France,  many  of  whom  fled  to  other  countries,  which  they 
enriched  by  their  industry  and  skill  in  the  arts. 

120.  Did  any  of  these  French  families  settle  in  the  British 
islands  ? — Yes  ;  many  settled  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
land, where  they  were  hospitably  received,  and  where  their 
descendants  are    now  mixed  with  the    general   population. 

§  I        The  arts  of  silk-weaving  and  dyeing  in  England  were  especi' 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


390  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY, 

ally  advanced  by  the  immigration  of  these  French  Protes. 
tants. 

121.  Who  were  the  Camisards  ? — They  were  Protestants  who 
inhabited  the  Cevennes,  a  mountainous  district  in  the  south 
of  France,  and  were  exposed  to  persecution  by  the  Revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Driven  to  desperation,  they 
broke  into  a  general  insurrection,  which  was  at  length  sup- 
pressed by  military  force. 

122.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  term  Camisard? — It  is 
thought  to  be  derived  from  camise,  a  species  of  blouse  or 
shirt  which  the  insurgents  wore  over  their  dress. 

1 23.  Who  were  the  contemporaries  in  England  of  Louis  XI V.  f 
— In  consequence  of  his  long  reign,  he  had  for  contemporaries 
Charles  I.,  Cromwell,  Charles  II.,  James  II.,  William  III., 
Queen  Anne,  and  for  a  short  time  George  I. 

124.  What  were  the  relations  of  Louis  to  these  English  con- 
temporaries?— With  some  he  was  friendly,  but  in  the  main 
and  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  the  English  made  strenu- 
ous efforts  to  restrain  him  from  extending  his  continental 
dominions.  His  great  military  antagonists  were  William  III. 
and  Marlborough. 

125.  How  did  Louis  XIV.  treat  Charles  II.? — He  reduced 
Charles  II.,  who  was  his  cousin,  to  a  political  subserviency 
by  money  bribes;  in  accepting  which  gifts,  Charles  showed 
the  utter  meanness  and  baseness  of  his  character. 

126.  What  was  the  transaction  between  Louis  XIV.  and 
Charles  II.  as  respects  Dunkirk? — Dunkirk,  a  fortified  town 
on  the  coast  of  French  Flanders,  which  had  been  taken  by 
Oliver  Cromwell  in  1658,  was  sold  by  Charles  II.  for  a  sum 
of  money  in  1662. 

127.  What  was  the  price  paid  for  Dunkirk? — It  is  said  to 
have  been  ;^5oo,ooo;  to  the  disgust  of  the  people  of  England, 
Charles  applied  the  money  to  his  own  private  purposes. 

128.  Who  were  the  Port-Royalists? — They  were  a  body  of 
learned  men,  theologians,  connected  with  the  convent  of  Port- 
royal  des  Champs,  near  Versailles,  who  composed  some 
Valued  educational  treatises,  and  played  an  important  part 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to  .  1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815. — See   page    368. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  301 

in  the  Jansenist  controversy.    The  most  noted  of  the  Port 
Royalists  was  Blaise  Pascal. 

129.  What  was  the  Jansenist  Controversy  ? — It  was  a  long- 
continued  controversy  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  chiefly 
respecting  the  doctrine  of  "  free  grace."  Jansen,  or  Jansen- 
ius,  a  learned  professor  of  theology  at  Louvain  (about  1630), 
propagated  views  on  the  subject  contrary  to  those  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  hence  the  controversy,  known  by  his  name, 
which  caused  much  excitement  in  France  and  some  other 
continental  countries. 

130.  Who  were  the  Jesuits? — They  were  a  religious  order 
in  the  Church  of  Rome,  constituting  the  "  Society  of  Jesus," 
which  was  originated  by  Ignatius  of  Loyola,  a  Spaniard,  and 
established  by  him  in  1540.  The  society  was  learned,  devout, 
and  full  of  zeal  for  the  church,  but  interfered  so  much  in 
civil  politics  that  it  was  at  various  times  expelled  from  dif- 
ferent countries  as  dangerous  to  the  public  interests. 

131.  When  were  the  Port-Royalists  suppressed? — Their  es- 
tablishment was  suppressed  in  1709,  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.,  this  measure  being  instigated  by  Madame  de  Mainte- 
non,  a  favorer  of  the  Jesuits,  whom  the  king  had  privately 
married. 

132.  What  was  the  last  great  war  in  which  Louis  XIV.  was 
concerned — It  was  the  famous  War  of  the  "  Spanish  Succes- 
sion." in  which  he  secured  Spain  for  his  grandson,  Philip  V., 
the  first  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  Spain.  Louis  concluded 
peace  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  1713. 

133.  When  did  Louis  XIV.  die  ?—Ue  died  on  the  ist  of 
September,  171 5,  after  a  long  reign  of  72  years. 

134.  What  is  the  name  assigned  to  Louis  in  French  annals  ? — 
He  is  referred  to  as  Louis  Quatorze,  le  Grand  M on  argue. 
From  the  superb  style  of  art  during  his  long  and  brilliant 
reign,  articles  of  taste  fabricated  during  his  era  are  said  to  be 
of  the  "  Louis-Quatorze  style." 

135.  Was  the  reign  of  Louis  XI V.  favor  a  ble  to  the  rise  of  men 
9f  cotnmanding  abilities  ? — Yes ;  his  reign  was  the  Augustan  age 
of  French  literature,  and,  encouraged  by  him,  several  men 
rose  to  great  distinction. 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619. — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


392 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 


1 36.  Repeat  the  glowing  description  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV, 
^iven  by  an  eminent  wt  iter. — "  Turenne  and  Luxembourg  were 
his  generals  ;  Colbert,  Louvois,  Torcy,  his  statesmen  ;  Vauban 
was  his  engineer;  Perault  constructed  his  palaces,  which  were 
adorned  by  Poussin  and  Lebrun  ;  Le  Notre  laid  out  his  gar- 
dens ;  Corneille  and  Racine  wrote  his  tragedies,  Moliere  his 
comedies  ;  Boileau  was  his  poet ;  Bossuet,  Fenelon,  Bourda- 
loue,  and  Massillon  were  his  preachers.  It  is  in  this  august 
assembly  of  men,  whose  fame  can  never  die,  that  this  monarch 
whom  they  acknowledged  as  their  patron  and  protector  pre- 
sents himself  to  the  admiration  of  posterity." 

137.  What  was  "  the  Dauphin?" — It  was  the  title  of  the  eld- 
est son  or  heir-apparent  of  the  throne  of  France. 

138.  How  did  the  title  "  Dauphijt"  originate? — It  was  for- 
merly the  title  of  the  lords  of  the  provinces  of  Dauphine. 
The  last  of  these  dying  childless,  1349,  bequeathed  his  pos- 
sessions to  Charles,  grandson  of  Philippe  VI.  of  France  on 
condition  that  the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne  should  bear 
the  honorary  title  of  Dauphin  ;  which  continued  the  practice 
until  the  title  was  abolished,  1830. 

139.  Did  the  Dauphin  survive  Louis  XIV.? — No;  both  the 
Dauphin  and  the  eldest  son  of  the  Dauphin  died,  171 1,  and 
the  succession  devolved  on  the  great-grandson  of  the  deceased 
monarch,  who,  as  Louis  XV.,  ascended  the  throne  at  five 
years  of  age,  171 5. 

140.  Who  was  the  Regent  Orleans  ? — He  was  Philippe,  Duke 
of  Orleans,  who,  as  a  relative  of  the  royal  family  and  first  peer 
of  France,  conducted  the  government  as  regent  during  the 
minority  of  Louis  XV. 

141.  Who  was  "Law  of  Lauriston ?" — He  was  John  Law, 
son  of  a  goldsmith  in  Edinburgh  and  proprietor  of  Lauriston, 
an  estate  situated  a  few  miles  from  that  city  ;  by  his  financial 
projects,  he  greatly  injured  France  during  the  regency  of 
Orleans. 

142.  What  was  the  ''Mississippi  Scheme?"' — It  was  a  joint- 
stock  concern  devised  by  the  Scotch  adventurer.  Law  of 
Lauriston  ;  it  included  plans  for  developing  the  resources  of 
Louisiana  a  French  colony  on  the  Mississippi ;  also  for  trad- 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long.— See    page    302. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  3^3 

ing  with  China  and  the  East  Indies,  and  therefore  bore  a  re- 
semblance to  the  famous  *'  South-sea  Bubble,"  about  the  same 
time  in  England. 

143.  When  was  the  Mississippi  Scheme  started?— Yt  was 
started  in  1717,  and,  favored  by  the  Regent  Orleans,  it  led  to 
a  ruinous  speculation  in  shares,  and  creation  of  paper  money. 
The  scheme  collapsed  in  1720,  and  fearing  the  public  indig- 
nation, Law  made  his  escape  from  France.  He  died  in  poor 
circumstances  at  Venice,  1729. 

144.  What  was  the  character  of  Louis  XV,  ? — Without  the 
ability  of  his  great-grandfather,  he  was  more  profligate  and 
wasteful ;  his  life  presented  a  spectacle  of  the  utmost  sensu- 
ality, selfishness,  and  baseness.  For  a  considerable  time,  he 
was  under  the  influence  of  Madame  de  Pompadour. 

145.  Who  was  Damiens? — He  was  a  person  who  attempted 
to  assassinate  Louis  XV.  by  stabbing  him,  1757.  He  was 
seized,  and  punished  with  the  mn^t  horrible  tortures  ;  his  hand 
was  burned  off;  his  body  dragged  about  by  horses;  and  into 
his  numerous  wounds  were  poured  molten  lead,  resin,  oil, 
and  sealing-wax  till  he  died — a  cruelty  reflecting  discredit  on 
the  administration  of  justice  at  the  period. 

146.  When  did  France  capture  Corsica? — In  1768,  when  the 
Corsicans,  who  had  been  endeavoring  to  make  themselves 
independent  of  Genoa,  were  forced  to  surrender  to  the 
French. 

147.  Who  was  General  Paoli? — He  was  a  distinguished 
Corsican  officer,  who  unsuccessfully  tried  to  prevent  the 
French  from  taking  possession  of  Corsica,  1768.  He  died  in 
London,  1807. 

148.  What  valuable  colony  remained  to  France,  after  England 
had  taken  her  principal  American  and  East  Indian  possessions? 
— The  island  of  St.  Domingo,  in  the  West  Indies,  which  pro- 
duced great  quantities  of  sugar,  and  gave  extensive  employ- 
ment to  shipping. 

149.  When  were  the  Jesuits  suppressed  in  France? — They 
were  suppressed  by  Louis  XV.,  1764,  in  order  to  please 
Madame  de  Pompadour,  who  had  involved  herself  in  a  con' 
test  with  the  society. 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  a^  '   Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators.— See    page    278 


394 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY, 


150.  When  did  Louis  XV.  die? — He  died  in  1774,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Louis  XVI.,  on  whose  head 
burst  the  cloud  of  misfortune  that  had  for  centuries  been 
accumulating  over  France. 

The  Netherlands, 

151.  What  was  the  early  history  of  the  Netherlands? — The 
country  was  occupied  by  the  Batavi,  Belgae,  Frisians,  and 
other  tribes,  who  were  subdued  by  the  Romans.  In  the 
middle  ages,  the  Netherlands,  like  most  parts  of  the  Contin- 
ent, belonged  to  feudal  chiefs,  from  whom  the  people  gradu- 
ally wrested  their  freedom. 

152.  How  were  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  connected  with  thQ 
Netherlands  ? — One  of  them  acquired  the  county  of  Flanders 
by  marriage,  1384. 

153.  How  was  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  connected  with  Flan- 
ders?— He  inherited  it  from  his  grandmother,  a  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  With  this  district  as  a  beginning, 
Charles  V.  extended  his  dominions  by  conquest,  and  under 
him  the  Netherlands  were  consolidated  and  improved. 

1 54.  What  was  the  conclusion  of  the  career  of  Charles  V.  ? — 
In  1555,  he  relinquished  the  government  of  the  greater  part 
of  his  vast  dominions  to  his  son,  Philip  II.,  and  retiring  into 
a  convent  in  Spain,  lived  there  until  his  death,  1558. 

155.  What  sort  of  a  personage  was  Philip  II.? — He  was  a 
man  of  cold  and  proud  manners,  who  was  very  generally 
disliked.  He  married  Mary  I.,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,  but  he  soon  left  the  country,  and  was  ever  after  en- 
gaged in  continental  affairs.  During  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
he  fitted  out  the  famous  Armada  against  Great  Britain,  which 
entirely  failed  to  effect  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  sent. 

156.  What  was  the  Inquisition? — The  Inquisition  or  "  Holy 
Office,"  was  a  tribunal  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church  institu- 
ted in  1248,  for  the  discovery,  repression,  and  punishment  of 
heresy,  unbelief,  and  other  offences  against  religion.  It  was 
established  in  various  countries,  but  nowhere  did  it  proceed 
with  such  rigor  as  in  Italy  and  Spain. 

157.  What  was  an  ''Auto  da  F^f — It  was  a  general  burn-- 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  v*    .    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  395 

ing  at  the  stake  of  obdurate  heretics  by  order  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion. "Auto  da  Fe,"  are  the  Spanish  words  for  an  "Act  oi 
Faith." 

158.  Was  Philip  II.  a  patron  of  the  Inquisition? — Yes;  he 
took  pleasure  in  its  operations,  and  reverentially  attended 
the  burning  of  his  subjects  in  Spain. 

159.  Who  was  the  Duke  of  Alva  ? — He  was  a  military  com- 
mander employed  by  Philip  II.  to  execute  vengeance  on  the 
people  of  the  Netherlands  for  having  revolted  under  his  cruel 
sway.  With  a  large  Spanish  army,  and  possessing  unlimited 
power,  Alva  inflicted  the  most  appalling  severities. 

160.  Who  were  conspicuous  in  resisting  the  tyranny  of  Philip 
II.  ? — The  Counts  Egmont  and  Horn,  two  patriotic  noblemen, 
who  were  condemned  to  death,  and  beheaded  at  Brussels, 
1568  ;  also  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  was  more  fortunate  in 
living  to  oppose  Philip  by  force  of  arms. 

161.  Who  was  the  Prince  of  Orange  ? — He  was  William  I.  of 
Nassau,  heir  of  the  principality  of  Orange,  in  the  South  of 
France,  and  of  large  possessions  in  Germany  and  the  Neth- 
erlands. 

162.  How  was  William  I.  Pri7ice  of  Orange  designated? — He 
was  usually  called  William  the  Silent,  from  his  sparing  use 
of  speech. 

163.  Was  William  a  Protestant  ? — Not  originally  ;  but  he 
became  a  Protestant  from  conviction,  and  willingly  took  part 
with  the  Protestants  of  the  Netherlands. 

164.  Who  succeeded  Alva  as  Spanish  governor  of  the  Nether- 
lands ? — General  Requesens,  a  man  of  calm  and  moderate 
temperament,  but  resolute  in  subduing  the  revolted  Nether- 
lands under  the  authority  of  Philip. 

165.  What  was  the  siege  of  Ley  den  ? — It  was  an  exceedingly 
protracted  siege  by  the  Spaniards  of  the  city  of  Leyden, 
during  which  there  were  great  sufferings  from  famine.  The 
siege,  which  took  place  in  1574,  was  raised  by  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  who  broke  down  the  dikes  and  flooded  the  country. 
By  this  extraordinary  expedient  the  Spaniards  were  forced 
to  retire,  and  the  inhabitants  were  supplied  with  food. 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but   Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65 


n 


O 


306  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTOR  V. 

166.  IV/taf  was  the  reward  of  the  citizens  of  Ley  den  for  theif 
unparalleled  sufferings  ? — The  Prince  of  Orange  offered  them 
a  choice  of  exemption  from  taxation,  or  to  have  a  university 
estabhshed  in  their  city.  They  nobly  preferred  to  have  g 
university,  which  was  inaugurated  in  1575. 

167.  Did  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands  i^tcline  to  the  Protestant 
interest  ? — No  ;  only  the  more  northern  provinces,  including 
Holland  and  Zeeland,  wei-e  Protestant,  while  the  southern 
provinces  remained  Catholic. 

168.  What  were  the  United  Provinces? — They  were  the 
seven  northern  provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  united  by 
William  Prince  of  Orange  ;  their  independence  was  acknowl- 
edged by  Spain  in  1609;  and  their  inhabitants  are  popularly 
known  as  the  Dutch. 

169.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  Prince  of  Orange? — While 
holding  the  office  of  Stadtholder,  or  President  of  the  United 
Provinces,  he  fell  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin  at  Delft,  1584. 
His  great-grandson  was  William  III.,  who  married  his  cousin 
Mary,  daughter  of  James  H.,  and  with  her  ascended  the 
throne  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  at  the  Revolution  of 
1688. 

170.  What  was  the  history  of  the  Southern  Provinces  of  the 
Netherlands  ?— They  were  for  a  time  placed  under  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Count  of  Anjou,  a  French  nobleman  ;  afterwards 
they  passed  by  marriage  into  the  possession  of  Albert,  Arch- 
duke of  Austria,  and  Isabella,  daughter  of  Philip  II.,  and  were 
known  as  the  Austrian  and  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  until 
the  whole  country  was  overrun  by  the  French  republican 
forces. 

171.  Do  the  modern  Netherlands  show  any  trace  of  their 
past  history? — Yes;  while  the  people  of  the  northern  pro- 
vinces remain  Protestant,  and  speak  the  Dutch  language, 
those  of  the  southern  provinces  retain  traces  of  the  Spanish  con- 
nection, speak  French,  and  are  generally  Roman  Catholics. 

Mussia,  Sweden,  Poland,  Denmarh. 

172.  When  does  the  history  of  Russia  assume  a  regular  char* 
acter? — In  the  reign  of  Ivan  I.,  from  1462  to  1505,  when  the 


Julius    Caesar,   a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    iii. 


The    Atmosphere   Reaches   to   the    Height    of   45    Miles. — See   page  47. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY, 


397 


country  was  freed  from  the  Tartars,  and  the  civilized  usages 
of  modern  Europe  introduced 

173.  What  is  the  meamng  of  the  term  Czar  ? — It  is  one  of  the 
titles  of  the  Russian  sovereigns.  The  word  is  supposed  to 
be  a  corruption  of  Ccesar,  the  title  of  the  Roman  emperors. 
The  wife  of  the  czar  is  styled  Czarina,  and  the  elder  son  of 
the  sovereign  Czarovitch. 

174.  What  is  rejnarkable  in  the  succession  to  the  throne  of 
Russia  ? — It  is,  that  the  reigning  sovereign  appoints  his  suc- 
cessor. The  history  of  Russia  is  disfigured  by  assassinations 
and  other  violent  measures  to  open  the  way  to  the  throne. 

175.  Who  was  Peter  the  Great — He  was  Peter  the  I.,  born 
in  1672,  who  was  surnamed  "  Great,"  in  consequence  of  his 
distinguished  abilities  and  the  vast  improvements  which  he 
effected  during  his  reign. 

176.  How  did  Peter  the  Great  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  ? 
--By  laying  aside  his  dignity  as  czar,  and  working  as  an 
artisan  in  foreign  countries.  Setting  out  from  his  domin- 
ions in  1697,  and  assuming  the  name  Peter  Michaeloif,  he 
wrought  for  some  time  as  a  ship-carpenter  near  Amsterdam, 
and  afterwards  near  London.  He  returned  to  Moscow  in 
1698. 

177.  Whom  did  Peter  appoint  to  office  ? — He  employed  nu- 
merous skilled  foreigners — Scots,  English,  French,  Germans, 
and  others — to  superintend  various  departments  of  affairs,  to 
organize  his  army,  and  instruct  his  people ;  by  which  means 
he  greatly  extended  the  reputation  and  power  of  Russia. 

178.  WJto  was  Giistavtis  Vasa  f — He  was  Gustavus  I.,  king 
of  Sweden,  which  under  him  was  freed  from  the  Danes,  and 
attained  to  matioaal  importance,  1525. 

179.  How  many  other  kings  of  Sweden  were  named  Gustavus  f 
— Three — Gustavus  II.,  III.,  and  IV. ;  the  most  noted  of 
whom  was  Gustavus  II.,  generally  known  as  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  the  "Lioa  of  the  North,  and  Bulwark  of  the 'Protest- 
ant Faith,"  who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Lutzen^  1632. 

180.  Who  was  Charles  XI I.  f — He  was  king  of  Sweden,  bom 
1682,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Charles  XI.,  1697,  at  which 
iime  Sweden  was  the  most  powerful  nation  in  the  north  of 

17  A 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    Warriors.— See    page    243. 


398 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTOR  Y. 


Europe.  Charles  XII.  was  an  extraordinary  military  genius, 
and,  as  some  think,  a  kind  of  madman.  His  great  opponent 
was  Peter  the  Great,  who  decisively  defeated  him  at  Pultova, 
1709. 

181.  What  was  the  fate  of  Charles  XII. .?— He  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Friedrickshall,  November  30,  1718,  and  by  his 
death  Sweden,  exhausted  by  his  wars,  ceased  to  be  numbered 
among  the  great  powers  of  Europe. 

182.  When  was  St.  Petersburg  founded? — It  was  founded 
in  1703  by  Peter  the  Great,  who  personally  superintended 
the  construction  of  the  city,  which  became  henceforth  the 
capital  of  Russia. 

183.  Who  were  the  Strelitzes? — They  were  the  life-guards 
of  the  czars,  amounting  sometimes  to  40,000  men  ;  as  trouble- 
some and  dangerous  to  the  state,  the  corps  was  dissolved  by 
Peter  the  Great,  and  entirely  dispersed,  1705. 

184.  When  did  Peter  the  Great  assume  the  title  of  Emperor? 
— On  the  successful  conclusion  of  his  war  with  Sweden, 
1721,  when  the  territories  of  the  empire  were  considerably 
extended. 

185.  When  did  Peter  the  Great  die? — He  died  in  1725  ;  at 
St.  Petersburg  there  is  a  celebrated  equestrian  monument  of 
Peter,  erected  in  1782. 

186.  Who  succeeded  Peter  the  Great  ? — His  wife,  Catharine  I., 
who  reigned  two  years,  immediately  after  whom  there  were 
several  successors  of  no  note. 

187.  Who  was  Catharine  II.  ? — She  was  the  greatest  of  the 
Russian  sovereigns  after  Peter  I. ;  she  ascended  the  throne  on 
the  murder  of  her  husband,  Peter  HI.,  to  which  she  was  ac- 
cessory, 1762. 

188.  What  was  the  character  of  Catharine  II? — Catharine 
was  a  woman  of  a  comprehensive  mind,  but  was  unscrupu- 
lous in  the  means  she  employed  to  effect  her  designs,  and 
possessed  degrading  tastes,  that  have  left  a  stain  on  her 
memory.  Like  Peter  the  Great,  Catharine  encouraged  the 
settlement  of  men  skilled  in  the  arts  and  sciences  from  for- 
eign countries. 


Crcesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


EQUESTRIAN    STATUE    OF    PETER    THE   GREAT    AT    ST.    PETERSBURG,    RUSSIA. 
ERECTED   IN    1 782. —  398. 


'stKkTY 


THt 


Of 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  39^ 

189.  What  was  Catharine  II.  called  by  her  contemporaries  f^ 
She  was  called  the  "  Semiramis  of  the  North" — her  vices, 
taste  for  magnificence,  and  warlike  character  having  sug- 
gested a  resemblance  to  Semiramis,  the  semi-fabulous  queen 
of  Assyria. 

190.  Who  was  Potemkinf— Prince  Potemkin  was  for  many 
years  the  favorite  and  trusted  minister  of  Catharine,  and 
by  his  daring  spirit  carried  on  various  aggressive  wars  for 
the  purpose  of  extending  the  dominions  of  Russia. 


military  commander,  who  in  the  reign  of  Catharine  IL,  execu- 
ted the  ruthless  purposes  of  Potemkin  against  Turkey  and 
Poland. 

192.  What  was  the  stor?ning  of  Ismaelf — It  was  the  capture 
of  Ismael,  a  fortified  city  of  the  Turks,  in  Bessarabia,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Danube,  December  22,  1790.  It  was  taken 
and  sacked  by  Suwaroff,  who,  to  other  atrocities  on  the  occa- 
sion, caused  a  massacre  of  40,000  of  its  inhabitants — men, 
women,  and  children  indiscrimately. 

193.  What  was  the  laconic  despatch  sent  by  Suwaroff  announ- 
cing this  bloody  triumph  /—It  was  "  Glory  to  God  and  the 
Empress!  Ismael  is  ours." 

194.  What  were  the  results  of  the  Rtissian  successes  over  Tur-> 
<^^j>/?— The  acquisition  of  teritory,  and  a  peace  with  Tur.ve}^ 
which  left  Catharine  leisure  to  perfect  her  ambitious  plans 
relative  to  Poland. 

195.  What  was  the  form  of  government  in  Poland?— \\.  was 
nominally  a  kingdom,  but  in  reality  it  was  an  oligarchy, 
with  an  elective  chief  styled  king.  The  nation  consisted 
chiefly  of  but  two  classes,  nobles  and  serfs  ;  it  was  the  asserr. 
bly  of  nobles  which  elected  the  king. 

196.  What  was  the^Liberum  Veto?" — It  was  a  rule  estab- 
lished by  law  in  Poland  during  the  reign  of  John  Casimir, 
1649,  by  which  the  vote  of  a  single  member  of  the  diet  or 
assembly  could  negative  the  votes  of  all  the  others.  This 
"  liberum  veto  '—about  the  worst  law  ever  devised— in  itself 
insured  the  ruin  of  Polish  nationality. 

197.  Who  was   John   Sobieski ?—\ie  w^as  a  distinguished 


[91.    Who  was  SuwaroJ"?— Count  Suwaroff  was  a  Russian        j  « 


^ 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second. — See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Bom  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821.— See  page  411. 


400  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY, 

Polish  general,  who  was  elected  king  of  Poland,  1674,  and 
rendered  important  services  to  Christendom  by  checking 
the  encroachments  of  the  Turks. 

198.  When  did  the  Turks  besiege  Vienna? — Under  the  Grand 
Vizier,  Kara  Mustapha,  a  powerful  army  of  Turks  laid  siege 
to  Vienna  in  1683,  when  the  city  was  rescued  by  John  Sobi- 
eski  and  his  Polish  cavalry.  This  splendid  act  of  heroism  has 
shed  a  lustre  over  the  memory  of  Sobieski. 

199.  When  did  John  Sobieski  die  ? — He  died  1696,  when,  by 
the  flagitious  body  of  nobles  who  overruled  public  affairs,  the 
throne  of  Poland  was  sold  to  the  highest  bidder. 

200.  When  did  the  First  Partitio7t  of  Pola7id  take  place? — It 
took  place  in  1772;  the  parties  to  this  infamous  act  were 
Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria;  but  the  government  of  Poland 
confirmed  the  treaty  of  partition.  Of  82,000  square  miles 
given  away,  Russia  obtained  one-half. 

201 .  When  did  the  second  Partition  of  Poland  take  place  ? — It 
took  place  in  1793,  when  Russia  received  96,000  square  miles, 
and  Prussia  rather  more  than  a  fourth  of  that  extent.  What 
remained  of  Poland  was  put  under  the  protection  of  Russia. 

202.  Who  was  Kosciusko? — Thaddeus  Kosciusko  was  a  dis- 
tinguished Polish  patriot,  who  endeavored  to  relieve  his 
country  from  Russian  oppression.  After  a  noble  but  un- 
availing struggle  against  superior  numbers,  the  Poles  were 
overcome  in  an  engagement,  October  10,  1794,  when  Kosci- 
usko was  struck  down,  covered  with  wounds. 

203.  What  was  the  exclamation  of  Kosciusko  in  falling  ? — It 
was  "Finis  Polo?tioe"  (It  is  the  end  of  Poland). 

204.  What  British  poet  refers  to  the  fall  of  Kosciusko? — 
Thomas  Campbell,  in  his  Pleasures  of  Hope,  has  the  lines  : 

"  Hope,  for  a  season,  bade  the  world  farewell. 
And  Freedom  shrieked— as  Kosciusko  fell !" 

205.  Did  Kosciusko  die  on  this  occasion? — No;  he  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  afterwards  liberated.  He  died  in  Switzerland 
in  1817. 

206.  When  was  the  Third  and  Final  Partition  of  Poland  ?— 
It  was  in  1795,  when  the  whole  that  remained  of  it  was  di- 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ir8. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  401 

vided  among  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria.  The  part  taken 
by  Russia  embraced  Warsaw,  in  which  there  have  lat- 
terly been  various  ineffectual  struggles  for  the  recovery  of 
Polish  nationality. 

207.  When  did  Catharine  II.  die? — She  died  suddenly  in 
1796,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  son,  Paul  I.,  whom  she  had 
kept  under  restraint  for  40  years. 

208.  What  was  the  fate  of  Paid  I.  ? — ^Deranged  in  intellect 
by  misusage,  he  gave  offence  by  his  extravagant  conduct, 
and  was  assassinated  by  a  body  of  conspirators,  1801. 

209.  Who  succeeded  the  Emperor  Paul? — He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Alexander  I.,  brother  of  Nicholas,  and  uncle  to 
the  present  emperor,  in  all  of  whose  reigns  Russia  has  made 
very  important  advances — the  latest  of  its  social  improve- 
ments being  the  abolition  of  serfdom. 

210.  When  was  Finland  acquired  by  Russia  ? — A  portion  of 
Finland  was  ceded  to  Russia  by  Sweden  in  1721  ;  the  rest  in 
1809. 

211.  What  is  the  early  history  of  Denmark  ? — It  forms  a  por- 
tion of  the  history  of  the  Scandinavians,  a  people  who  were 
once  a  formidable  maritime  power  in  Europe.  The  Danes 
made  various  descents  on  the  British  islands  during  the 
middle  ages. 

212.  Who  was  ''Hamlet,  Prince  of  Denmark  ?" — There  is  a 
legend  concerning  Hamlet,  or  Amleth,  a  prince  of  Denmark, 
who  is  said  to  have  existed  in  exceedingly  early  times ;  on 
which  legend  Shakspeare  has  founded  his  tragedy  of  Haitilet, 
Authentic  history  has  no  account  of  any  such  personage. 

213.  When  does  the  histoi  j  of  Denmark  begin  to  have  any  in- 
terest?— About  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  when  the 
states  of  Holstein  and  Schleswig  elected  the  king  of  Den- 
mark as  their  hereditary  Duke. 

214.  Mention  an  estifnable  and  eminent  king  of  Denmark. — ■ 
Christian  IV.,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  and  duchies,  1588. 
His  reign  was  signalized  by  great  improvements  in  the  arts, 
also  by  the  extension  of  commerce  and  maritime  power.  Ha 
died  in  1648. 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000     Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503.— See  page  i 


81. 


V 

*-• 

V 

a 
a 

a 

O 


402 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 


215.  Mentio7i  a  despicable  king  of  Den7nark. — Christian  VII, 
who  succeeded  his  father,  1766,  and  was  noted  for  his  dissix 
pations  and  his  imbecility  of  character.  He  was  almost  en- 
tirely under  the  guidance  of  his  mother,  a  weak  and  evil-dis-» 
posed  woman. 

216.  Whom  did  Christian  VII,  7narry  ? — He  married  Caro- 
line-Matilda, sister  of  George  III.  of  England,  whom  he  treated 
in  the  most  barbarous  manner. 

217.  Who  was  Struensee? — He  was  a  prime-minister  of  Den- 
mark in  the  reign  of  Christian  VII.  to  which  position  he  ha< 
risen  by  his  abilities  in  affairs  of  state  ;  he  had  originally  been 
a  young  physician  at  Altona. 

218.  What  was  the  Struensee  affair? — In  consequence  of 
certain  scandals  concerning  the  Queen  Caroline-Matilda,  in 
which  Struensee  was  alleged  to  be  implicated,  he  was  arrested, 
brought  to  trial,  and  beheaded,  1772. 

2 1 9.  Was  Caroline-Matilda  really  guilty  of  the  scandalous  con- 
duct of  which  she  was  accused? — No;  recent  investigations 
show  that  she  was  a  victim  to  the  enmity  of  the  queen*dow- 
ager.  An  interesting  memoir  of  the  much-wronged  Caro- 
line-Matilda has  been  published  in  England,  explaining  the 
whole  circumstances  of  the  Struensee  affair. 

220.  What  was  the  fate  of  Caroline-Matilda  ? — She  was  con- 
fined as  a  prisoner  in  the  fortress  of  Elsinore,  until,  by  the 
interference  of  England,  she  was  removed  to  the  castle  of 
Zell,  in  Hanover,  where  she  died  broken-hearted  at  the  age 
of  23  years,  1775. 

Prussia,  and  Austria  resumed, 

221.  What  was  the  Duchy  of  Brandenburg  .?— The  Duchy  or 
Mark  of  Brandenburg  was  a  German  province  which  formed 
the  nucleus  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia. 

222.  When  did  Brandenburg  become  a  kingdom? — In,  1701 
when  the  ruling  elector  placed  a  crown  on  his  head  and  styled 
himself  king  of  Prussia,  under  the  title  of  Frederick  I. 

223.  How  has  the  originally  stnall  kingdom  been  extended  in 
dimensions  f~By  successive  acts  of  aggression  on  neighbor* 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


Ambrosia,   in   Mythology,  was    the    Food    of  the   Gods. — See  page   248. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY,  403 

ing  countries,  particularly  Poland;  such  acts  being  sustained 
by  a  large  and  generally  well-disciplined  army. 

224.  Who  succeeded  Frederick  I.? — He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Frederick-William  1.,  who  was  remarkable  for  his  mili- 
tary organization,  and  desire  to  form  regiments  of  tall 
soldiers— a  fancy  which  induced  him  to  connive  at  the  most 
flagrant  outrages  for  kidnapping  tall  men  and  forcing  them 
into  his  service. 

225.  Who  was  ''Frederick  the  Great?" — He  was  Frederick 
n.,  son  of  Frederick-William  I.  and  Sophia-Dorothea,  sister 
of  George  H.  of  England.  Frederick  ascended  the  throne 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  1740,  and  his  talents  and  ability  as 
a  ruler  gained  him  the  title  of  "  Great." 

226.  What  was  the  character  of  Frederick  III— He  was  one 
of  the  greatest  military  commanders  of  his  age,  fertile  in  re- 
source, economical,  of  indomitable  resolution,  and  fond  of 
literature  and  the  arts.  He  disliked  the  German  language, 
spoke  and  wrote  French,  and  was  a  patron  of  Voltaire,  the 
eminent  French  writer. 

227.  What  were  the  territorial  acquisitions  of  Frederick  II.  f 
—By  his  warlike  operations  and  skilful  diplomacy,  he  gained 
Silesia  and  a  large  portion  of  Poland  ;  at  his  death,  he  left 
Prussia  one-half  larger  than  it  had  been  at  his  accession,  also 
a  full  treasury,  and  an  army  of  200,000  men. 

228.  What  did  Frederick  II.  die? — He  died  1786,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Frederick-William  H.,  in  whose 
reign  Prussia  participated  in  the  final  division  of  Poland. 

229.  When  did  the  male  line  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  expire  ? 
—It  expired  by  the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  emperor  of  Germany, 
1740. 

230.  Who  was  Maria-Theresa? — She  was  daughter  of 
Charles  VI.,  emperor  of  Germany,  whose  archdukedoiti  of 
Austria,  sovereignty  of  Hungary,  and  other  dignities  she  in- 
herited, in  virtue  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction. 

231.  What  is  7neant  by  "Pragmatic  Sanction?'' — The  term 
strictly  signifies  "a  business  arrangement  which  is  generally 
acknowledged  ;"  but  in  history,  it  is   variously  applied   to 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70, — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in   Mythology,  Numbered   12.— See  page   242 


^04  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 

decrees  and  settlements  affecting  national  liberties  or  the 
succession  to  the  throne. 

232.  What  was  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  as  regards  Maria- 
Theresa? — Charles  VI.,  emperor  of  Germany,  having  lost  his 
son,  named  his  daughter,  Maria-Theresa,  as  his  heir,  and  the 
decree  or  instrument  making  this  appointment,  which  was 
out  of  the  usual  routine,  was  known  as  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction. 

233.  What  was  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  ? — It  was 
a  war  which  sprung  out  of  the  irregular  succession  of  Maria- 
Theresa  to  the  archdukedom  of  Austria  and  sovereignty  of 
Hungary,  to  which  several  princes  objected.  In  this  war, 
Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Naples,  and  Sardinia,  stirred  up 
by  France,  were  opposed  to  Maria-Theresa,  who,  however, 
was  finally  victorious. 

234.  Who  were  the  three  great  continental  sovereigns  in  the 
second  half  of  the  \%th  century? — Catharine  the  Great  oi 
Russia,  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  and  the  Empress 
Maria-Theresa  of  Austria,  who  was  a  woman  of  singular 
energy  and  ability,  and  of  a  greatly  more  estimable  character 
than  Catharine. 

235.  Whom  did  Maria-Theresa  marry? — She  married 
Francis-Stephen,  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  and  had  three  sons 
and  six  daughters;  at  her  decease,  1780,  she  was  succeeded  by 
her  eldest  son,  Joseph  I.  Her  youngest  daughter  was  Marie 
Antoinette,  born  November  2,  1755. 

France  concluded. 

236.  Who  was  Louis  XVI.? — He  was  grandson  of  Louis 
XV.,  who,  by  the  death  of  his  father,  became  Dauphin,  and 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  1774  Louis  XVI.  had  two  younger 
brothers,  the  Count  de  Provence,  and  the  Count  d'Artois; 
also  a  sister,  the  Princess  Elizabeth. 

237.  Whom  did  Louis  XVI.  marry? — While  Dauphin  he  was 
married  to  Marie  Antoinette,  daughter  of  Maria  Theresa  of 
Austria,  and  noted  as  one  of  the  most  'beautiful  women  of 
her  time.  An  interesting  account  of  her  marriage,  and  of 
the  court  of  France,  is  given  in  the  Memoirs  of  Madami 
Catnpan. 


The   Bastile   was  a   Prison  in   Paris ;   Destroyed,    1789.— See  page  407. 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTOR  V. 


405 


238.  What  was  the  character  of  Louis  XIV.  f — He  was  a 
good-natured  and  well-meaning  man,  who  had  not  the  ability 
to  confront  and  overcome  the  dangers  which  menaced  the 
monarchy. 

239.  Who  was  Turgot? — He  was  one  of  the  ministers  em- 
ployed by  Louis  XVL — a  man  with  enlarged  views  concern- 
ing commerce  ;  but  by  attempting  to  control  the  nobility 
they  united  against  him,  and  he  was  dismissed  ;  he  died  1781. 

240.  Who  was  Necker? — He  was  an  able  finance  minister 
who  succeeded  Turgot ;  he  materially  improved  the  finances, 
but  having  proposed  to  tax  the  nobility  and  clergy,  he  like- 
wise was  driven  from  power  ;  he  was,  however,  recalled,  and 
shared  in  the  troubles  which  soon  after  broke  out ;  he  died 
at  Geneva,  1804. 

241.  What  promoted  a  derangement  in  the  finances  of  France? 
— The  outlays  incurred  in  assisting  the  British-American 
colonists  to  secure  their  independence,  which  led  to  a  costly 
war  with  England,  from  1774  till  the  peace  of  Paris,  1782. 

242.  What  was  the  French  Revolution  ? — It  was  a  great  po- 
litical and  social  convulsion,  in  which  the  monarchy  and  all 
the  institutions  of  the  country  were  overthrown  ;  the  era  of 
the  revolution  was  1789  to  1794,  but  it  began  to  threaten  as 
early  as  1787. 

243.  Give  a  summary  of  the  chief  causes  which  led  to  the 
French  Revolution — 

1.  The  concentration  of  all  power  in  the  sovereign,  which 
had  been  promoted  by  Richelieu  and  perfected  by  Louis 
XIV. 

2.  The  withdrawal  of  the  landed  aristocracy  from  the  rural 
districts,  and  their  continued  residence  at  Paris,  which  ac- 
quired a  dangerously-preponderating-influence. 

3.  The  neglect  of  the  peasantry,  who  were  oppressed  by 
taxes  and  compelled  to  work  on  the  roads  and  render  labor 
otherwise,  without  compensation. 

4.  The  odious  privileges  of  the  nobility,  who,  while  servile 
to  the  court,  were  arrogant  'n  demeanor  to  the  common 
people,  none  of  whom  could  hope  by  talent  or  industry  to 
rise  in  the  social  scale. 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles.— See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C.— See  page  273 


406  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 

5.  The  vices  of  the  higher  clergy,  and  general  profligacy  ot 
manners. 

6.  The  writings  of  Rousseau,  Voltaire,  D'Alembert,  Helve- 
tius,  Diderot,  and  others,  who  held  up  religion  to  ridicule  and 
reprobation. 

7.  The  generally  perverted  administration  of  justice,  and 
the  liability  to  being  committed  to  the  Bastile,  and  kept  for 
years  in  confinement  without  trial. 

8.  The  seeming  impracticability  of  a  constitutional  reform 
of  abuses  ;  for  the  States-General  had  not  met  since  1614, 
and  the  art  of  holding  deliberative  assemblies  was  lost. 

9.  The  naturally  high  spirit  of  the  French  people,  who, 
galled  to  the  limits  of  endurance,  were  ready  for  any  out- 
break. 

10.  The  increase  of  a  wealthy  class  of  traders,  or  burgher 
class,  who,  by  law  and  usage,  were  shut  out  from  offices  of 
honor  or  trust,  which  were  reserved  alone  for  the  nobility. 

11.  The  fantastic  notions  of  Liberty,  Equality,  and  Frater- 
nity excited  by  the  successful  revolt  of  the  North-American 
colonies,  which  revolt  had  been  assisted  by  France. 

12.  Financial  disorder,  which  was  past  remedy  on  account 
of  the  nobility  and  clergy  resisting  all  attempts  to  be  taxed. 

244.  Was  the  Parliament  of  Paris  concerned  in  bringing  on  tht 
Revolution  ? — The  parliament  was  to  some  extent  blamable  ; 
for  having  recovered  its  independence,  it  refused  to  register 
the  absolutely  necessary  decrees  of  the  king  as  regards  loans 
and  taxes. 

245.  What  was  a  "Bed  of  Justice?" — A  bed  of  justice  {lit 
de Justice)  consisted  in  the  sovereign  personally  appearing 
before  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and  forcing  the  court  to  re- 
gister his  decrees,  which  he  was  entitled  to  do ;  but  this  was 
an  extreme  measure  rarely  resorted  to. 

246.  What  was  the  first  step  in  the  Revolution  f — The  con- 
voking of  the  States-General. 

247.  When  did  the  States-General  meet? — The  States-General 
met  at  Versailles,  May  5,  1789;  but  great  dissensions  ensued, 
and  the  meetings  were  abortive,   until  the  three  orders- 


The   Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


The    Battle    of  ^A^ate^loo   was    Fought    June    i8,    1815. — See   page    368. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY,  407 

commons,  clergy,  and  nobles — united  under  the  title  of  the 
National  Assembly.  Other  assemblies  of  different  kinda 
followed  in  the  progress  of  the  Revolution. 

248.  What  men  were  raised  to  notoriety  by  the  Revolution  f — 
Mirabeau,  Lafayette,  Barnave,  Talleyrand,  Roland,  Brissot, 
Dumouriez,  Marat,  Danton,  Philip  Duke  of  Orleans,  who 
styled  himself  Philip  Egalite,  Robespierre,  and  many  others. 

249.  When  was  the  Bastile  destroyed  ? — It  was  attacked  by  the 
infuriated  populace,  July  14  and  15,  1789,  when  it  was  cap- 
tured and  destroyed,  and  its  governor  and  other  officers 
killed. 

250.  When  was  the "tri-color"  flag  adopted? — The  French 
"  tri-color"  flag  was  adopted  by  the  revolutionists  in  1789; 
it  consists  of  three  vertical  stripes — blue,  white,  and  red — 
the  blue  next  the  staff. 

251.  When  was  France  divided  into  Departments? — In 
November,  1789,  when  the  old  divisions  in  provinces  were 
abolished. 

252.  Who  were  the  French  emigrants  ? — The  French  emi- 
grants {emigr^es)  were  vast  numbers  of  the  nobility  and  clergy 
who  fled  from  France  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution — a 
fatal  and  cowardly  step,  which  greatly  facilitated  the  progress 
of  disorder. 

253.  Did  the  royal  family  attempt  flight  f-^QS  ;  but  were 
brought  back,  June,  1791. 

254.  What  was  the  "Jacobin  Club ?"—ltv^2i^2i  political  so- 
ciety with  extreme  republican  views ;  its  members  were 
termed  Jacobins,  from  their  place  of  meeting  in  Paris  being 
an  old  Jacobin  convent. 

255.  Who  were  the  Girondists  ?— They  were  the  moderate 
republican  party,  and  were  so  named  from  their  leaders, 
Vergniaud  and  others,  representatives  from  the  department 
of  the  Gironde. 

256.  What  was  a  Cap  of  Liberty  ?— It  wdiS  a  red  woollen 
night-cap  worn  by  the  more  ferocious  of  the  French  revolu- 
tionists.   On  the  occasion  of  an  attack  on  the  Tuileries, 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    i6ig, — See    page    145. 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564;      Died     1616.  —  See    page     143. 


408  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 

June  20,  1792,  Louis  XVI.,  as  an  attempt  to  conciliate  the 
mob,  placed  a  cap  of  that  kind  on  his  head. 

257.  What  was  the  massacre  of  the  loth  of  August  ? — It  was 
the  massacre  of  the  Swiss  guards  and  others  at  the  palace  of 
the  Tuileries,  by  a  savage  mob  of  revolutionists,  on  the  loth 
of  August,  1792,  when  5,000  persons  were  slaughtered. 

258.  What  were  ''Trees  of  Liberty?" — They  were  trees 
planted  along  the  public  thoroughfares  in  French  cities  com- 
memorative of  the  so-called  liberty  gained  by  the  Revolution. 
Planted  hastily,  few  of  these  trees  grew,  and  many  were  cut 
down  or  removed.  Sometimes  a  pole  was  set  up  bearing  a 
cap  of  liberty,  and  such  pole  was  called  a  "  tree  of  liberty." 

259.  When  was  monarchy  abolished  and  a  republic  established? 
— September  22,  1792,  from  which  date  a  new  calendar  was 
subsequently  instituted — the  year  i  of  the  French  republic 
beginning  with  that  date. 

260.  When  did  the  French  declare  their  fraternity  with  alt 
nations  desirous  of  being  free,  and  offer  to  help  them  ? — On  the 
19th  November,  1792,  the  revolutionary  convention  made  this 
extraordinary  declaration,  which  was  everywhere  viewed  as 
an  encouragement  to  rebellion,  and  created  great  alarm 
throughout  Europe. 

261.  When  was  Louis  XVI.  beheaded? — He  was  beheaded 
January  21,  1793;  and  Marie  Antoinette,  his  queen,  was  be- 
headed on  the  i6th  of  October  following. 

262.  What  was  the  memorable  saying  uttered  by  Burke  when 
speaking  of  the  misfortunes  and  unfriended  condition  of  Marie 
Antoinette? — It  was  :  "  The  age  of  chivalry  is  gone" — a  saying 
often  since  quoted. 

263.  What  caused  the  outbreak  of  the  great  French  War? — 
The  horror  entertained  in  England  and  some  other  countries 
regarding  the  cruel  treatment  of  the  royal  family,  but  more 
particularly  the  alarm  caused  by  the  declaration  of  the  Con- 
vention, which  induced  threats  of  foreign  interference  with 
the  domestic  affairs  of  France  ;  these  threats  stimulated  the 
military  and  patriotic  ardor  of  the  French  to  an  extrava- 
gant pitch — hence  the  long  and  desperate  war  that  ensued; 
hence,  also,  the  Reign  of  Terror. 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was   Destroyed   in   1588. — See  page  330. 


SB 

a> 
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tn 

XI 

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o 
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(0 


The   Great    Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles     Long. — See    page    302. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  .on  o 


409 

264.  What  was  the  ''Reign  of  Terror  f"— It  wdiS  a  time  ot 
general  terror,  extending  from  the  autumn  of  1793  till  the 
middle  of  1794,  when  great  numbers  of  persons  in  all  parts 
of  France  were  put  to  death  by  the  guillotine  and  other- 
wise. 

265.  Mention  three  conspicuous  promoters  of  the  Reign  of 
Terror.— M3.ra.t,  Danton,  and  Robespierre. 

266.  What  was  the  fate  of  Marat  f—Yi^  was  assassinated, 
July  13,  1793,  by  Charlotte  Corday,  a  young  woman  who  took 
this  bad  method  of  avenging  some  family  wrongs. 

267.  What  was  the  fate  of  Danton  /—Like  many  others, 
including  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  re^ 
volutionary  tribunal  which  he  had  helped  to  establish,  and 
was  beheaded,  April  5,  1794. 

268.  What  was  the  character  of  Robespierre?— Yi^  is  said  to 
have  had  some  good  qualities— was  unselfish,  honest,  and 
simple  in  his  habits—but  he  was  a  political  fanatic  and  ty- 
rant of  the  worst  description  ;  his  governing  notion  was  that 
society  could  only  be  rectified  by  the  extirpation  of  all  who 
were  in  the  least  favorable  to  monarchy  or  aristocracy. 

269.  What  was  the  fate  of  Robespierre .?— The  surviving  mem- 
bers of  the  moderate  party,  gathering  courage  to  resist  the 
Terrorists,  caused  Robespierre  to  be  seized,  and  he  was  be- 
headed, July  28,  1794,  when  the  Reign  of  Terror  closed. 

270.  What  was  the  number  usually  beheaded  daily  i7t  Paris 
during  the  Reign  of  Terror  f—Hh^  number  usually  varied 
from  about  30  to  50;  but  sometimes  there  were  many  more; 
along  with  Robespierre  there  were  27  others  beheaded,  and 
next  day,  as  a  finish  of  his  party,  73  were  guillotined. 

271.  What  were  "Fusillades?"— Th^y  were  shootings  of 
crowds  of  victims  by  cannon  ;  this  method  of  execution  was 
adopted  at  Lyons,  where  the  progress  of  the  revolution  had 
been  resisted. 

272.  What  were  "  Noyades  ?"— They  were  drownings  of 
great  numbers,  who  were  crowded  into  vessels  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  the  vessels  were  sunk,  until  all  they  contained  were 

18 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators.— See    page    278 


410  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 

drowned.     In   this   manner  Carrier,  a   monster  of  cruelty, 
drowned  10,000  victims  at  Nantes. 

273.  How  many  perished  altogether  during  the  Revolution?-^ 
Upwards  of  a  million,  or  about  a  twentieth  part  of  the  popu- 
lation ;  but  in  this  number  are  included  those  who  were 
killed  in  the  war  in  La  Vendee. 

274.  What  was  the  War  in  La  Vendue? — It  was  a  civil  wal 
in  La  Vendee,  in  the  west  of  France,  where  a  bold  but  un- 
availing effort  was  made  to  uphold  the  monarchy;  the  war, 
which  lasted  three  years,  was  suppressed  by  the  republican 
forces  in  1796. 

275.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  Church  in  France  at  the  Revo- 
lution?— The  church  was  abolished,  and  its  whole  possessions 
appropriated  by  the  state  ;  Christianity  itself  was  proscribed  ; 
many  of  the  ecclesiastical  edifices  were  used  as  warehouses 
and  stables  ;  and  for  a  season  there  was  a  hideous  saturnalia 
of  irreligion,  along  with  an  affected  worship  of  Reason,  repre- 
sented by  a  female,  styled  "  the  goddess  of  Reason." 

276.  What  were  "Assignats  ?" — They  were  assignments  to 
portions  of  land  which  had  been  in  possession  of  the  church; 
such  lands  being  called  National  Domains  {Domaines Na- 
tionaux).  These  assignats  were  profusely  issued  as  paper- 
money,  and  varied  in  expressed  value  ;  the  first  issue  w^as  in 
1790. 

277.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  assignats  ? — Being  issued  in 
immense  quantities  by  the  government,  they  speedily  sunk 
in  value,  till  at  last  they  were  worthless,  and  nobody  would 
take  them  in  exchange  for  articles.  The  assignats  were  with- 
drawn, 1796,  after  causing  great  confusion. 

278.  Who  was  Dumouriez? — He  was  the  first  great  Repub- 
lican general.  In  the  campaign  of  1792,  he  repeatedly  beat 
the  Prussians  and  Austrians  on  the  north  and  northeast 
frontier;  but  becoming  disgusted  with  the  anarchy  and  cru- 
elty of  the  Jacobins  at  Paris,  he  entered  into  negotiations  to 
restore  the  Bourbons,  which  being  discovered,  he  had  to  fly 
from  his  own  troops  ;  he  retired  to  England,  where  he  died, 
1823. 

279.  Who  was  the  Duke  de  Chartres  ? — He  was  the  eldest  son 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


Humboldt,  the   Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859.— See   page    133 


& 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTOR  Y. 


411 


of  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  accompanied  Dumouriea 
in  his  flight;  after  various  vicissitudes,  he  also  found  refuge 
in  England. 

280.  Who  was  Louis  X  VII.  f — He  was  a  child  of  Louis  XVI., 
who  died  from  cruel  treatment,  1795  5  his  title  was  merely 
nominal,  for  the  country  was  governed  as  a  republic. 

281.  What  was  the  Directory? — It  was  a  body  of  five  indi- 
viduals, who,  in  1795,  were  empowered  by  the  "  Council  ot 
Five  Hundred"  to  conduct  the  administration  of  public  af- 
fairs.   The  Directory  was  in  power  about  four  years. 

282.  Who  was  Carnot? — He  was  a  skilled  military  officer, 
who  had  the  merit  of  organizing  the  French  republican 
army,  the  successes  of  which  were  greatly  owing  to  his  well- 
conceived  plans. 

283.  Who  was  Pichegru? — He  was  a  military  commander, 
who  conducted  a  French  republican  army  into  the  Nether- 
lands, 1794;  there  drove  the  combined  English  and  Dutch 
forces  before  him ;  crossed  the  Waal  and  the  Meuse  on  the 
ice,  January,  1795,  ^i^^  made  the  French  masters  of  Holland 
and  Flanders. 

284.  What  was  the  later  career  of  Pichegru  ? — It  was  one  of 
a  very  unhappy  kind  ;  having  intrigued  for  the  restoration  of 
the  Bourbons,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  government  under 
Consul  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  he  was  thrown  into  prison, 
where  he  died  by  his  own  hands,  1804. 

285.  Who  was  Napoleon  Bonaparte? — He  was  a  native  of 
Corsica,  where  he  was  born  August  15,  1769.  Receiving  a 
military  education,  he  entered  the  French  Republican  armv, 
and  came  favorably  into  notice  by  his  dashing  campaign  and 
conquests  in  Italy,  1796. 

286.  What  were  the  peculiar  tactics  of  Napoleon? — Far- 
sighted  ingenuity  of  plan,  celerity  of  movement,  and  audacity 
of  assault  by  concentrated  and  overpowering  masses  ;  Napo- 
leon, besides,  possessed  great  firmness  and  resolution,  and 
was  unscrupulous  in  the  means  he  employed. 

287.  Who  was  Josephine? — She  was  a  native  of  Martinique, 
and  widow  of  the   Viscount  de   Beauharnois,  who  lived  in 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle.— See  page  13. 


Upwards  of  120,000  Different  Plants  are  Known  to  Exist.— See  page  65 


4 1 2  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HIS  TOR  Y 

Paris,  with    a   son  and  daughter,  Eugene  and  Hortens-e,  m 
1796,  when  she  was  married  to  Napoleon. 

288.  When  did  the  French  invade  Egypt? — The  French, 
under  the  command  of  Napoleon,  invaded  Egypt,  1798,  and 
were  successful  in  wresting  that  country  from  the   Turks. 

289.  What  was  the  battle  of  the  Nile  ? — It  was  a  victory  gained 
by  the  British  fleet,  under  Nelson,  over  the  French  fleet,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  August  i,  1798;  by  this  and  subse- 
quent disasters,  the  French  had  to  quit  Egypt,  and  relinquish 
their  projects  in  the  East. 

290.  What  is  a  coup  d'  Stat  ? — A  coup  d'  Stat  is  an  abrupt  and 
unexpected  overturn  of  the  form  of  government. 

291.  What  was  the  nature  of  the  coup  d  Stat  of  the  iZth 
Brumaire  ? — It  was  the  overthrow  of  the  Council  of  five 
Hundred  and  Directory  by  Napoleon,  who  employed  armed 
force  for  the  purpose.  The  i8th  Brumaire  corresponds  with 
the  loth  November,  1799. 

292.  What  incident  was  parallel  to  this  in  the  history  of  Eng- 
land?— The  expulsion  of  the  Long  Parliament  by  Oliver 
Cromwell,  1653.  Napoleon  was  to  the  French  revolution 
what  Cromwell  had  been  to  the  great  English  civil  war. 

293.  What  position  did  Napoleon  hold  after  the  coup  d'etat 
of  the  \%th  Brumaire? — He  became  a  species  of  Dictator, 
with  the  title  of  First  Consul — a  step  to  still  higher  power. 

294.  What  was  the  battle  of  Marengo  ? — It  was  a  victory  of 
the  French  army  over  the  Austrians,  June  14, 1800 — this  and 
other  victories  greatly  increasing  the  popularity  and  power 
of  Napoleon. 

295.  When  was  the  ''Decimal  system'*  legalized  in  France? — 
The  decimal  system  of  weights  and  measures,  which  had  been 
in  preparation  since  1790,  was  legalized  in  1801. 

296.  When  was  the  Church  re-established  in  France  ? — Napo- 
leon re-established  the  church  along  with  the  papal  author- 
ity in  France,  1801,  but  subject  to  the  provisions  of  a  con- 
cordat. 

icyj.  What  is  a  Concordat? — It  is  a  treaty  of  agreement 
between  the  ruling  civil  power  of  a  country  and  the  pope,  in 


Julius    Caesar,  a    Roman    Statesman;    Died,    44    B.C.— See    page    iii. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles. — See   page  47. 


MODERN  CON  TIN  EN  TAL  HIS  TOR  V.  413 

which  mutual  rights  as  regards  control  over  certain  church 
affairs  are  stipulated  for.  There  have  been  various  concordats 
between  the  rulers  of  France  and  the  papacy  ;  that  which 
now  exists  is  favorable  to  the  rights  of  the  state. 

298.  When  was  the  Legion  of  Honor  instituted? — It  was  in- 
stituted as  an  order  of  merit  by  Napoleon,  when  First  Con- 
sul under  the  Republic,  1802. 

299.  Who  was  Toussaint-Louverture? 
— He  was  a  distinguished  negro  mili- 
tary commander  in  the  island  of  St.  Do- 
mingo, after  that  island  had  been  revo- 
lutionized in  1791  by  the  example  of 
France,  to  which  country  it  belonged. 

300.  What  was  the  fate  of  Toussaint- 
Louverture? — He  was  induced  to  comeV 
to  France,   relying   on   assurances    of 
safety,  but  was  cruelly  put  in  prison, 
where  he  languished  and  died,  April,  1803. 

301.  Who  was  the  Duke d'  Eiighien? — He  was  the  only  son 
of  Prince  Henri,  Duke  de  Bourbon,  and  last  descendant  of 
the  "  Great  Conde."  He  commanded  a  part  of  the  army 
which  attempted,  from  the  side  of  Germany,  to  suppress  the 
republic,  but  was  living  retiredly  in  the  duchy  of  Baden  when 
he  was  unlawfully  seized  by  order  of  Napoleon  on  the  night  of 
March  4,  1804. 

302.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  Duke  d'  Enghien  ? — On  a  pre- 
tended accusation  of  being  concerned  in  a  plot  to  assassinate 
Bonaparte,  he  was  condemned  and  shotwithin  the  fortress  of 
Vincennes,  March  20,  1804 — an  act  which  has  fixed  a  lasting 
stigma  on  the  character  of  Napoleon. 

303.  When  was  Napoleon  created  Emperor? — France  was 
constituted  an  empire,  of  which  Napoleon  was  created  em- 
peror, with  the  title  of  Napoleon  I.,  May  18,  1804. 

304.  What  was  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  ? — It  was  a  cele- 
crated  victory  gained  by  the  French  over  the  Austrians  and 
Russians,  December  2,  1805  ;  this  victory  led  to  the  subjuga- 
tion of  Germany,  and,  with  some  other  victories,  gave  a  par-* 
amount  power  to  Napoleon  in  continental  Europe 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728.— See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a   Nation   of    Female    ^A^arriors.— See    page    243. 


414  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY, 

305.  When  was  the  French  republican  calendar  abolished?--' 
It  was  abolished  by  Napoleon,  and  the  ordinary  calendar  re« 
sumed,  January  i,  1806. 

306.  What  is  the  "  Code  Napoleon  ?" — It  is  a  great  body  of 
law,  civil,  criminal,  and  commercial,  executed  by  order  of 
Napoleon,  between  1803  and  1808  ;  this  comprehensive  code 
superseded  all  the  old  laws  of  France,  which  were  of  a  very 
confused  nature,  and  remains  the  legal  code  till  this  day. 
The"  Code  Napoleon"  has  been  adopted  in  the  Netherlands 
and  some  other  countries. 

307.  When  did  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  cease  ? — The  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  of  which  Charlemagne  was  created  the  first 
emperor,  800  a.  d.,  and  which  latterly  had  been  called  the 
"  German  Empire,"  was  broken  up  by  the  conquests  of  Na- 
poleon. In  1806,  the  emperor  of  Germany  renounced  that 
title,  and  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  of  Austria. 

308.  Who  were  the  ''Electors  of  Germany?" — They  were  cer- 
tain princes  and  primates,  eight  in  number,  who  enjoyed  the 
privilege  of  electing  the  emperor  of  Germany;  by  the  disso- 
lution of  the  German  empire  by  Napoleon,  the  title  of  elector 
ceased,  and  is  now  used  only  in  an  honorary  way  by  the 
"  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel." 

309.  What  changes  were  made  by  Napoleon  on  continental 
states?— He  transformed  Wurtemberg  and  Saxony  into  king- 
doms, and  absorbed  various  adjoining  territories  into  France. 
Hanover  was  created  a  kingdom  by  George  III.,  1814. 

310.  What  was  the  battle  of  Jena? — It  was  a  severe  and 
humiliating  defeat  of  the  Prussians  by  the  French,  October 
14,  1806. 

311.  What  was  the  battle  of  Wagram? — It  was  a  victory 
gained  by  the  French  over  the  Austrians  at  Wagram,  on  the 
Danube,  July  5  and  6,  1809;  by  this  defeat,  the  Austrians 
could  make  no  further  head  against  Napoleon. 

312.  When  did  Napoleon  divorce  Josephine? — She  was  di- 
vorced by  him  i6th  December,  1809  ;  and  shortly  afterwards, 
Napoleon  married  Maria  Louisa,  archduchess  of  Austria,  by 
»hom  he  had  a  son. 


Crcesus,   a   King  in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


LUXEMBOURG  PALACE,  PARIS.       CITY  RESIDENCE  OF  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE. 


FONTAINEBLEAU    (GARDEN    AND    PALACe),    NEAR    PARIS.        COUNTRY    RESIDENCE 
OF    NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE. —  414. 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  41  c 

313.  What  was  the  Russian  campaign  ? — It  was  the  invasion 
of  Russia  by  the  French  under  Napoleon,  1812  ;  owing  to  the 
burning  of  Moscow  by  the  Russians  and  the  severity  of  winter, 
the  campaign  proved  fatal,  the  "  grand  army"  was  destroyed, 
and  Napoleon  suffered  his  first  great  reverse  of  fortune. 

314.  Why  did  Napoleon  invade  Russia  ? — His  chief  reason  was 
to  force  the  Emperor  Alexander  to  adopt  the  French  com- 
mercial policy  against  England,  as  laid  down  in  the  famed 
Berlin  decree  of  1806  in  short,  because  Alexander  would  not 
help  to  ruin  England,  Napoleon  went  to  war  against  him,  and 
met  with  a  just  retribution. 

315.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  great  reverse  suffered  by  Napo- 
leonf—lt  destroyed  the  idea  of  Napoleon's  infallibility,  and 
stimulated  the  Germanic  people,  especially  the  Prussians,  to 
rise  en  masse  against  their  French  oppressors. 

316.  What  followedf—ln  1813— 1814,  the  famous  War  of 
Liberation,  in  which  the  Germans,  assisted  by  the  Russians, 
achieved  prodigies  of  valor,  and  in  spite  of  the  magnificent 
strategy  of  Napoleon,  drove  the  French  in  disorder  across 
the  Rhine. 

317.  What  was  the  battle  of  Leipsic  ? — It  was  the  greatest 
battle  fought  in  the "  War  of  Liberation,"  and  has  been 
called  the  "battle  of  nations  ;"  it  was  fought  on  a  field  near 
Leipsic,  October  16 — 19,  1813,  when  the  French  were  routed 
with  great  slaughter. 

318.  What  other  reverses  was  Napoleon  stfferi^tg  ?— Wis  ar- 
mies, which  had  overrun  the  Peninsula,  suffered  many  de- 
feats from  the  British  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington  ;  and 
these,  added  to  his  reverses  in  Germany,  brought  on  a  col- 
lapse of  the  gigantic  power  which  had  for  twelve  years  been 
the  terror  of  Europe. 

319.  When  did  Napoleon  abdicate? — Pressed  on  by  the  allies 
^Prussians,  Austrians,  Russians,  and  British — Napoleon  ab- 
dicated, April  5,  1814,  when  the  French  war  closed.'  Shortly 
afterwards  Napoleon  was  exiled  to  Elba,  which  he  quitted, 
March,  181 5,  and  the  war  was  for  a  short  time  resumed. 

320.  What  was  the  reign  of  the  *' Hundred  days  f — It  was  the 
period  during  which  Napoleon  resumed  his  power  in  Paris, 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second. — See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821. — See  page  411. 


416  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 

from  the  beginning  of  March  till  the  12th  of  June,  1815,  when 
he  proceeded  to  join  his  army  in  order  to  encounter  the  al- 
lies in  the  Netherlands. 

321.  What  was  the  battle  of  Waterloo  ? — It  was  a  final  strug- 
gle of  the  British  and  their  allies,  under  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington, against  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  June  18,  181 5,  when  he 
was  thoroughly  vanquished. 

322.  When  were  the  Bourbons  restored  to  the  throne  of  France  f 
—The  Count  de  Provence,  brother  of  Louis  XVI.,  was  placed 
on  the  throne  as  Louis  XVIIL,  1814,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  he  reigned  till  his  death,  1824. 

323.  What  became  of  Napoleon?- -Yi^  endeavored  to  escape, 
but  failing  in  the  attempt  he  surrendered,  and  was  sent  by 
the  British  government  to  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  where 
he  died  May  5,  1821. 

324.  What  was  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ?—Vi  was  a  meeting  of 
representatives  of  the  allied  powers  of  Europe,  which  was 
held  at  Vienna  from  November,i8i4,  to  June,  181 5,  where  num- 
erous national  interests  were  adjusted.  The  settlement  on 
mis  occasion  is  often  referred  to  as  the  "Treaty  of  Vienna." 

325.  What  was  the  Holy  Alliance?— It  was  a  league  formed 
by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria  in  Septem- 
ber, 181 5,  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  mutual 
relations  of  the  states  of  Europe  on  Christian  principles. 
Other  powers,  including  England,  acceded  to  the  league,  which 
had  practically  the  effect  of  securing  to  each  ruler  the  right 
to  tyrannize  over  his  subjects  without  control  or  remon- 
strance. 

326.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  Holy  Alliance .?— France  and 
England  seceded  from  it ;  and  becoming  ridiculous,  it  sunk 
out  of  notice. 

327.  Who  was  Napoleon  II.  .?~He  was  the  infant  son  of 
Napoleon  I.,  who  abdicated  in  his  favor,  181 5  ;  but  the  ar- 
rangement was  of  no  practical  avail.  This  son  of  Napoleon, 
best  known  as  the  Duke  of  Reichstadt,  died  while  young  at 
Vienna,  1832. 

328.  Who  was  Charles  X.?—Uq  was  the  Count  d'Artois, 


Order  of  the  Garter  "  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret   Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTOR  V. 


417 


brother  of   Louis  XVIIL,  whom  he  succeeded  as  king   of 
France,  1824. 

329.  JVas  the  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  18 14  acceptable 
to  the  French? — No;  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  being 
effected  by  the  alHed  powers,  their  rule  was  odious  to  their 
subjects,  and  their  unwise  pohcy  confirmed  the  popular 
dislike. 

330.  What  was  the  famous  saying  of  Talleyrand  respecting 
the  restored  Bourbons  f — He  said  that  "they  had  forgot  nothing 
and  learned  nothing" — meaning  the^t  their  errors,  like  those 
of  the  Stuarts,  were  incorrigible,  even  by  the  gravest  mis- 
fortunes. 

331.  What  was  the  Revolution  of  July?— It  was  a  violent 
outbreak  in  Paris  in  July,  1830,  caused  by  the  unwise  and 
despotic  measures  of  Charles  X.,  and  terminated  in  his 
deposition  and  flight. 

332.  Who  was  the  Duke  de  Berry? — He  was  second  son  of 
Charles  X.,  and  was  assassinated  February  14,  1820;  his 
son  is  Henri,  Duke  de  Bordeaux,  sometimes  styled  Count  de 
Chambord,  who,  by  the  death  of  the  Duke  d'Angouleme,  his 
father's  elder  brother,  remains  the  representative  of  the 
elder  branch  of  the  House  of  Bourbon. 

333-  Who  was  Louis  Philippe? — He  was  the  Duke  of 
Orleans — formerly  Duke  de  Chartres — eldest  son  of  Philippe 
Duke  of  Orleans,  who  conspicuously  figured  and  perished  in 
the  great  revolution  of  1789.  Louis  Philippe  was  placed  on 
the  throne  as  "King  of  the  French,"  August  9,  1830. 

334.  What  was  the  Revolution  of  1848  ? — It  was  a  popular  in- 
surrection arising  out  of  the  misgovernment  of  Louis 
Philippe  and  his  minister,  Guizot.  Louis  Philippe  fled  to 
England,  where  he  died,  1850. 

335.  Who  was  Ferdinand  Duke  of  Orleans  ? — He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  lost  his  life  by  accident, 
July  13,  1842;  leaving  two  sons,  the  elder  of  whom,  styled 
Count  de  Paris,  is  the  representative  of  the  younger  or 
Orleans  Branch  of  the  house  of  Bourbon. 

336.  What  did  the  French  do  on  the  flight  of  Louis  Philippe  f 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


N 
V 

to 
a 
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O 
« 

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418  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 

—They  once  more  tried  a  republic,  at  first  under  a  Provis. 
ional  Government ;  for  a  time  there  was  a  resumption  of 
"  Liberty,  Equality,  and  Fraternity,"  as  a  popular  dogma,  and 
"trees  of  liberty"  were  planted. 

337.  Who  were  the  "Red  Republicans .?"— They  were  a  party 
who  held  extreme  views  at  the  Revolution  of  1848,  and 
seemed  inclined  to  make  a  general  partition  of  property,  and 
reorganize  a  Reign  of  Terror;  they  were,  however,  re- 
strained by  the  eloquent  and  temperate  addresses  of  Lam- 
artine. 

338.  Who  was  Lamartine  /—He  was  a  literary  man  of  fine 
taste  and  susceptibilities,  who,  as  a  temporary  chief  at  the 
revolution  of  1848  performed  invaluable  service.  Lamartine 
retired  from  public  life  in  1852,  and  died  in  1869. 

339.  What  other  men  became  conspicuous  at  the  Revolution  oj 
1848/— Louis  Blanc,  Albert,  Ledru  Rollin,  Arago,  Thiers, 
Prudhon,  and  Cavaignac. 

340.  What  was  the  ''Organization  of  Labor?" — It  was  a  pro- 
ject of  certain  Socialist  clubs,  to  the  effect  that  government 
should  in  some  way  employ  everybody,  and  pay  them  wages. 

341.  What  were  ''Ateliers  Nationaux .?"— They  were  national 
workshops  established  as  part  of  the  organization  of  labor, 
in  order  to  give  universal  employment  at  the  cost  of  the 
public  finances.  They  were  promoted  chiefly  by  Louis  Blanc, 
Albert,  and  one  or  two  other  Socialists  ;  but  all  the  members 
of  the  Provisional  Government  consented  to  their  institution. 

342.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  Ateliers  Nationaux  f—Th^y 
were  soon  given  up  as  ruinous. 

343.  What  ensued  on  the  dissolution  of  the  Ateliers  Nation- 
aux ?—K  terrible  outbreak,  and  the  erection  of  barricades  in 
the  streets  of  Paris,  June,  1848;  the  insurrection  was  sup- 
pressed by  General  Cavaignac,  but  only  after  6,000  persons 
ViQxe  killed. 

344.  What  has  been  thought  of  the  French  project  of  "organ- 
izing labor r— The  universal  opinion  is,  that  it  showed  a 
pitiable  ignorance  of  the  first  principles  of  social  economy, 
not  only  in  the  people,  but  those  who  aspired  to  lead 
them. 


o  I !  h 

Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


The   Great   Wall    of    China    was     1,250    Miles    Long. — See    page    302. 


MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY.  419 

345.  What  succeeded  the  Provisional  Government  f — A  regular 
republic,  with  an  Assembly  and  President. 

346.  Who  was  Louts  Napoleon  Bonaparte  ? — He  was  son  of 
Louis  Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napoleon  ;  his  mother  was  Hor- 
tense,  daughter  of  Josephine;  he  was  born  1808.  Louis 
Napoleon  was  declared  President  of  the  new  French  repub- 
lic by  a  popular  vote,  December  20,  1848. 

347.  Was  the  Assembly  of  \Z\%  in  able  legislative  body? — 
No;  as  regards  legislative  capacity,  it  proved  a  complete 
failure  ;  and  this  circumstance,  joined  to  a  dread  of  the  Red 
Republicans,  disposed  the  nation  for  a  new  coup  d'etat ;  an 
overthrow  of  this  kind,  on  the  plea  of  national  necessity, 
took  place  under  direction  of  Louis  Napoleon,  December  2, 
1851. 

348.  When  did  Louis  Napoleon  become  emperor  f — By  a  pop- 
ular vote,  he  became  Emperor  of  the  French  under  the  title 
of  Napoleon  III.,  December  2,  1852 — republicanism  having 
thus  a  second  time  sunk  under  a  Dictator. 

349.  What  are  Prefects? — A  prefect  {pr^fet)  is  an  officer 
appointed  by  government  to  administer  public  affairs  in  a 
Department  ;  there  is  one  for  each  of  the  Departments  in 
France,  all  taking  their  orders  from  the  Minister  of  the  In- 
terior in  Paris. 

350.  Why  is  the  form  of  govern7nent  of  France  so  easily 
changed  by  a  coup  d'etat  or  revolution  .?— Because,  whatever 
may  be  the  professed  character  of  the  government,  it  really 
consists  of  a  single  central  authority  situated  in  the  capital, 
whence  its  orders  are  issued  to  the  prefects. 

351.  What  facilities  does  this  centralized  system  offer  for  rei'O- 
lution? — An  insurrectionary  mob  has  only  to  crush  the 
central  power  in  Paris  by  military  violence,  and,  seizing  the 
telegraph  at  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  issue  commands  to 
the  prefects  all  over  France  ;  by  which  means  a  new  order  of 
things  may  be  at  once  established. 

352.  Explain  how  the  goi'ernment  of  Great  Britain  differs 
from  that  of  France?— T\vQ  British  executive  government  does 
not  interfere— nor  has  it  the  power  to  interfere— with  the  ad- 
ministration of  local  affairs  ;  these  affairs  are  in  the  hands  oi 


Michael  Angelo,  Great  Painter  and  Sculptor,  Died,  1563. — See  page  172. 


The    Coliseum    at     Rome     Seated    87,000     Spectators. — See    page    278. 


420  MODERN  CONTINENTAL  HISTORY. 


the  civic  and  county  magistracy,  who  act  independently  ac^ 
cording  to  the  provisions  of  acts  of  parliament.  Conse- 
sequently,  any  dislocation  of  the  executive  at  Westminster 
would  have  little  effect  in  disturbing  the  usual  routine  of 
affairs  throughout  the  country. 

353.  Define  more  briefly  the  difference  of  gov  ern7nent  in  France 
and  England. — France  is  governed  by  an  arbitrary  authority, 
be  it  called  a  monarchy  or  a  republic  ;  England  is  governed 
by  law,  under  a  constitution. 

354.  When  the  republicans  were  in  power  in  France,  did  they 
-ittempi  to  substitute  a  system  of  independent  local  adtninistration 
for  central  authority  f — No  ;  they  ruled 
precisely  in  the  ^ame  manner  as  an 
emperor  or  Jctator;  and  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  people  understand  or 
are  prepared  for  anything  else. 

355.  What  was  the  policy  of  Napoleon 
III.?— It  was  a  policy  favorable  to  the 
material   prosperity  of  France,  which 
under    him     made     great    advances. 
Towns  and  cities  have  been  much  im- 
proved; Paris,  in  particular,  has  been  Napoleon  III. 
almost  rebuilt,  and  rendered  the  most  beautiful  city  in  the 
world  ;    and  manufacturing   and  commercial  industry  have 
been  prodigiously  extended. 

356.  What  was  the  Franco-Prussian  War? — It  was  a  wax 
declared  by  France  against  Prussia,  in  July,  1870,  on  the 
ground  that  the  king  of  Prussia  refused  to  prohibit  the  can- 
didature of  his  relative,  Prince  Leopold,  for  the  vacant 
throne  of  Spain.  The  French  armies  were  vanquished  ;  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  III.  was  deposed  by  a  Parisian  mob  ;  the 

3  German  forces  gained  possession  of  a  large  part  of  France, 

and  imposed  a  heavy  pecuniary  fine  on  the  country.  France 
is  now  a  republic. 

357.  What  was  the  fate  of  Napoleon  III. .?— After  six  months' 
stay  as  a  prisoner  of  war  at  Wilhelmshohe,  near  Cassel, 
Napoleon  retired  to  Chiselhurst,  in  Kent,  where  he  died, 
Jan.  9,  1873. 


Captain  Cook,  the  Great  Navigator,  was    Killed  in  1779. — See  page  365. 


The    Battle    of  Waterloo  was    Fought   June    i8,    1815.— See   page   368. 


CONCL  UDING  HIS  TORICAL  Q  UESTIONS.  42 1 

CONCLUDING  HISTORICAL  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  was  the  origin  of  Venice? — Venice  originated  in 
the  settlement  of  the  poorer  inhabitants  of  Northern  Italy, 
taking  refuge  on  islands  in  the  Adriatic  from  the  attacks  of 
the  Huns  under  Attila,  about  452. 

2.  How  did  Venice  become  a  great  commercial  city? — By  be- 
coming an  ejttrepdt  of  commerce  with  the  East,  previous  to 
the  discovery  of  a  passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

3.  How  were  the  tvealth  and  importance  of  Venice  demon- 
strated?— By  the  building  of  grand  palaces  by  the  merchant- 
princes  along  the  chief  watery  thoroughfares.  These  palaces 
still  exist  as  a  melancholy  memorial  of  decayed  grandeur. 

4.  What  was  the  nature  of  fhe  Venetian  government  until 
nodern  ti7nes? — It  consisted  of  an  aristocratic  republic  or 
oligarchy,  with  a  senate  and  doge. 

5.  What  was  the  doge  of  Venice? — He  was  the  elective 
president  of  the  republic  of  Venice,  and  ruled  with  the  power 
of  a  sovereign.  The  term  doge,  like  the  title  duke,  is  from  the 
Latin  duco,  to  lead. 

6.  When  did  the  Venetian  Republic  terminate? — It  came 
abruptly  to  an  end  by  the  invasion  of  the  French,  1797-  in 
1814,  Venice,  with  its  territory,  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Austria. 

7.  Who  was  Charles  of  Anjou  ? — He  was  brother  of  Louis 
IX.  (Saint  Louis),  and  received  from  Pope  Urban  IV.  a  grant 
of  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  and  Naples,  1254,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  rightful  heir. 

8.  What  were  the  ''Sicilian  Vespers?'' — That  was  the  name 
given  to  a  massacre  of  the  French  in  Sicily,  consequent  on 
their  taking  possession  of  the  country;  the  massacre  began 
at  Palermo  on  Easter  Monday,  1282,  and  8,000  French  were 
slaughtered.  The  kingdom  subsided  into  a  possession  of 
Spain. 

9.  Who  was  CcEsar  Borgia? — He  was  a  dissolute  and  rapa- 
cious military  commander  in  Italy  son  of  Pope  Alexander 
VI.,  who,  aiming  at  becoming  king  of  Romagna,  perpetrated 

i8  A 


The    First    English    Newspaper    was    Printed    in    1619.— See    page    I45- 


William     Shakspeare    was     Born     1564 ;      Died     1616.  —  See     page     143. 


422 


CONCLUDING  HISTORICAL  QUESTIONS. 


numerous  atrocities.  He  was  at  last  captured  and  taken  to 
Spain,  where  he  was  killed,  1507.  The  cruelties  of  Caesar 
Borgia,  and  the  vices  of  his  sister  Luc rezia,  have  condemned 
the  name  to  infamy. 

10.  What  E7iglish  poet  refers  to  Bo7'gza  ? — Pope,  in  his  Essay 
on  Man,  has  the  lines  : 

"  If  plagues  or  earthquakes  break  not  Heaven's  design, 
Why  then  a  Borgia,  or  a  Catiline  ?" 

11.  What  was  the  Florentine  Republic? — It  was  one  of  sev- 
eral eminent,  though  small  aristocratic  republics  in  Italy, 
from  the  12th  to  the  i6th  century.  Its  capital  was  Florence, 
which  became  enriched  with  treasures  of  art. 

12.  Who  was  Savonarola? — He  was  a  learned  and  eloquent 
Italian  monk,  who,  about  1490,  caused  a  great  excitement  in 
Florence  by  preaching  against  the  observances  of  the  church 
of  Rome,  and  also  preaching  a  reform  in  the  aristocratic  con- 
stitution of  the  republic  ;  in  the  heat  of  his  enthusiasm, 
Savonarola  declared  that  he  possessed  supernatural  authority. 

13.  What  was  the  fate  of  Savonarola? — He  was  excom- 
municated as  a  heretic,  and  being  brought  to  trial,  was  first 
put  to  the  rack  to  confess  his  errors,  and  then  strangled  and 
burned,  1498.  There  are  differences  of  opinion  regarding 
Savonarola's  conduct  as  an  ecclesiastical  and  political  re- 
former, but  all  lament  his  cruel  fate. 

14.  Who  was  Machiavelli? — He  was  a  statesman  in  the 
Florentine  republic,  in  the  early  part  of  the  i6th  century, 
noted  for  his  sagacity  and  literary  abilities.  He  suffered  from 
the  oppressive  proceedings  of  the  Medici  family,  and  died  in 
1527,  leaving  some  historical  and  other  treatises. 

1 5.  What  is  meant  by  ''Machiavellism  ?" — Such  is  the  name 
ordinarily  given  to  any  system  of  policy  which  supports  law 
and  authority,  however  unscrupulous  in  the  use  of  means. 
The  term  is  derived  from  Machiavelli,  who,  in  one  of  his 
speculative  treatises,  vindicates  the  use  of  treachery  and 
other  odious  artifices  in  order,  if  need  be,  to  secure  the  author- 
ity of  a  ruler.  Some  have  thought  that  Machiavelli  wrote 
only  ironically  on  this  subject. 


The    Famous    Spanish  Armada  was    Destroyed    in   1588. — See  page  330 


Aurora  Borealis  Consists  of  Light  Streaks  of  Electricity.— See  page  54. 


CONCLUDING  HISTORICAL   QUESTIONS.  423 

16.  Who  was  Masaniello? — Masaniello,  or  properly  Tom- 
maso  Aniello,  was  a  fisherman  of  Naples,  who  led  a  revolt  in 
that  city  against  the  Spanish  viceroy,  whose  oppressions  had 
ex- sperated  the  people,  1647  Masaniello  became  frenzied 
by  success,  and  was  killed  by  his  own  associates. 

17.  What  was  the  French  kmgdom  of  Italy? — It  was  a  king- 
dom created  out  of  the  French  conquests  in  Italy,  of  which 
Napoleon  was  constituted  king,  1805 — an  arrangement  which 
lasted  till  1814. 

18.  What  was  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies? — It  consisted 
of  the  island  of  Sicily  and  the  mainland  of  Italy  adjoining 
Naples. 

19.  Who  was  Murat? — He  was  one  of  the  generals  of 
Napoleon,  who  assigned  to  him  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  1808.  Murat  lost  this  possession  at  the  peace  of 
1814,  and  was  shot  as  a  criminal,  after  making  a  vain  attempt 
to  recover  the  kingdom,  1815. 

20.  Who  was  Bemadottef — He  was  originally  a  sergeant  in 
the  French  army,  who,  by  good-conduct  and  military  skill, 
rose  to  be  a  commander;  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  and  by  Napoleon  was  created  Prince 
of  Ponte-Corvo.  Bernadotte  was  elected  king  of  Sweden, 
1 810,  and  the  throne  of  that  country  is  now  occupied  by  his 
descendant.  Of  all  Bonaparte's  generals,  Bernadotte  was  the 
most  worthy  and  respected. 

21.  What  was  the  Treaty  of  Vienna? — The  best  known 
Treaty  of  Vienna  is  that  between  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Prussia,  181 5,  settling  the  re-arrangement  of 
European  countries,  as  they  now  generally  appear.  A  sup- 
plementary treaty  defined  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 

22.  How  was  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  defined  by  the 
Treaty  of  Vienna  ? — The  whole  Netherlands  were  constituted 
a  kingdom  vested  in  the  House  of  Orange. 

23.  When  was  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  broken  up  into 
two  parts? — It  was  broken  up  by  a  revolution  in  1830;  in 
1831,  the  Northern  or  Dutch  provinces  were  constituted  the 
kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  the  Southern  were  con- 
stituted the  separate  kingdom  of  Belgium. 


The  Earth's  Distance   from  the  Sun   is  92,000,000   Miles. — See  page  15. 


Cleopatra  was  an  Egyptian  Princess,  who  Died  30  B.C. — See  page  273. 


424  CONCLUDING  HISTORICAL  QUESTIONS. 

24.  Who  was  created  king  of  Belgium  f—VrmcQ  Leopold  of 
Saxe-Cobourg,  whose  first  wife  was  the  Princess  Charlotte  of 
Wales.  In  1832,  Leopold  married  the  Princess  Louise,  daugh- 
ter of  Louis  Philippe,  king  of  the  French,  and  in  their 
family  is  vested  the  succession  to  the  crown  of  Belgium. 

25.  When  did  Greece  become  a  possession  of  the  Turks  ? — After 
1453,  when  the  Mohammedans  captured  Constantinople. 

26.  When  did  the  people  of  Greece  rebel  against  the  Turkish 
dominion? — In  1820,  when  the  Greeks,  favored  by  the  good 
wishes  of  all  Christendom,  made  a  strenuous  effort  to  shake 
off  the  Turkish  power,  in  which  they  were  aided  by  the 
celebrated  Lord  Byron,  1823. 

27.  When  did  the  Greeks  achieve  their  independence? — In 
1829,  since  which  Greece  has  been  a  distinct,  but  far  from 
well-governed  kingdom. 

28.  Who  were  the  Knights  of  Malta? — The  Knights  of 
Malta,  or  more  correctly,  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
salem, were  a  celebrated  military  and  religious  order  of  the 
middle  ages,  to  whom  was  finally  assigned  the  island  of 
Malta,  which  they  retained  under  the  chief  or  Grand-Master, 
until  1798,  when  the  island  was  surrendered  to  the  French, 
and  the  order  dissolved. 

29.  When  was  Malta  captured  by  the  British  ? — It  was  cap- 
tured from  the  French,  1800  ;  and  by  treaty,  remains  a  British 
possession. 

30.  Who  were  the  Mamelukes? — They  were  a  military 
body  in  Egypt,  consisting  of  highly-trained  slaves,  gener- 
ally white,  from  the  Caucasus.  Nominally,  they  were  a  force 
at  command  of  the  Pasha  or  Turkish  viceroy,  but  in  reality 
the  Pasha  was  controlled  by  them.  Mohammed  Ali,  Pasha, 
by  a  stratagem,  caused  a  large  number  of  the  Mamelukes  to 
be  massacred,  181 1,  and  the  remainder  were  exterminated, 
1820. 

31.  Who  were  the  Janizaries? — They  were  a  body  of  Tur- 
kish troops,  formed  originally  about  1330,  of  the  children  of 
Christians  who  had  been  conquered,  and  were  reared  as 
Mohammedans.     Latterly,  the  Janizaries  acted  as  the  body 


The    Reign    of    Terror    Extended    from    1793    to     1794. — See   page    409. 


Ambrosia,   in    Mythology,  was   the    Food    of  the   G^-»ds. — See  page    248. 


(» 


CONCLUDING  HISTORICAL  QUESTIONS.         425 

guard  of  the  sultan  at  Constantinople,  but  on  the  ground  of 
being  turbulent  and  dangerous  to  the  state,  the  force  was 
dissolved,  1826,  when  15,000  were  executed,  and  more  than 
20,000  banished. 

32.  What  was  the  Helvetian  Republic .?— The  French,  in  their 
resistless  progress,  having  subjugated  Switzerland,  1797, 
formed  it  into  the  Helvetian  Republic,  1798.  The  country  is 
now  a  federation  of  cantons,  and  its  independence  is  secured 
by  the  Treaty  of  Vienna,  181 5. 

33.  What  was  the  Dey  of  Algiers  ? — He  was  the  Turkish 
chief  of  a  body  of  Janizaries  who  long  ruled  Algiers  and  its 
neighborhood,  and  carried  on  a  system  of  piracy  against  the 
Christian  maritime  powers  of  Europe. 

34.  When  did  the  British  fleet  bombard  Algiers  ? — A  British 
fleet,  under  Admiral  Lord  Exmouth,  bombarded  Algiers, 
August  16,  1816,  when  the  dey  was  humbled,  and  Christian 
slavery  abolished. 

35.  When  did  the  French  take  possession  of  Algiers  ? — The 
French  subdued  and  took  possession  of  Algiers,  1830,  since 
which  time  Algeria  has  been  a  possession  of  France. 

36.  What  effect  had  the  French  revolution  of  1848  on  Conti- 
nental Europe  ? — The  revolutionary  spirit  spread  to  various 
countries,  and  to  conciliate  their  subjects,  several  sovereigns 
promised  to  give  constitutions  to  their  subjects;  a  reaction, 
however,  took  place  in  1849 — 1850. 

37.  Who  was  Pius  IX.? — Pius  IX.  {Pio  Nono),  late  pope  of 
Rome,  was  elected  1846,  and  began  by  pursuing  a  liberal 
policy  ;  but  his  subjects  acquired  extreme  views,  consequent 
on  the  Revolution  in  France,  and  his  minister,  Rossi,  was 
assassinated,  November  I5,.i848,  whereupon  Pius  IX.  quitted 
Rome,  and  remained  absent  till  affairs  were  tranquillized  by 
the  pfesence  of  a  French  army,  1850.  In  1861,  the  Papal 
States,  with  the  exception  of  Rome,  were  annexed  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy;  and  in  1870,  Rome  also  was  incorporated 
with  it. 

38.  Who  is  Garibaldi? — He  is  a  native  of  Nice,  where  he 
was  born  1807;  bred  to  the  sea,  and  of  a  generous  and  in- 
trepid character,  he  distinguished  himself  in  defence  of  Rom© 


Solomon's    Temple    was    Destroyed    in     the    Year    70. — See    page    230. 


The  Labors  of  Hercules,  in,  Mythology,  Numbered    12.— See  page   242. 


« 


426  CONCLUDING  HISTORICAL  QUESTIONS. 

when  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  1849.  The  most  celebra- 
ted act  of  Garibaldi  was  the  expulsion  of  the  Spanish  Bour- 
bon dynasty  from  the  Two  Sicilies,  July,  1859. 

39.  Who  was  Victor  Emmanuel  ?—Yxoxn  being  king  of  Sar- 
dinia he  became  king  of  Italy — a  position  which  he  gained 
partly  by  the  assistance  of  Napoleon  III.  in  the  Franco- 
Italian  war  of  1859,  when  the  Austrians  were  expelled  from 
Lombardy,  and  several  petty  principalities  subdued  ;  also 
partly  by  the  services  of  Garibaldi  in  securing  the  Two  Si- 
cilies as  an  addition  to  the  new  Italian  kingdom. 

40.  Of  what  is  the  modern  kingdom  of  Italy  composed? — It 
comprehends  the  whole  of  Italy  and  the  islands  of  Sardinia 
and  Sicily,  with  the  city  of  Rome  as  capital. 

41.  Which  are  the  ''five  great  powers  of  Europe  f" — Russia, 
Prussia,  Austria,  France,  and  Great  Britain. 

42.  Is  not  Spain  reckoned  among  the  "  great  powers  f" — It  is 
not;  Spain,  which  was  once  a  "great  power,"  has  declined 
into  a  second  or  third  rate  power. 

43.  When  did  Spain  decline  in  power  and  importance  ? — It 
declined  in  the  reign  of  Philip  II.,  son  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  in  cqnsequence  of  a  long  course  of  oppression  and 
religious  intolerance  ;  but  to  this  cause  has  been  added  general 
misgovernment,  by  which  Spain  lost  its  principal  colonial 
possessions. 

44.  When  did  Portugal  emancipate  itself  from  the  do7nifiion 
of  Spain .?— Portugal,  which  had  been  wrongfully  taken  pos- 
session of  by  Spain,  secured  its  independence  under  the 
House  of  Braganza,  1640. 

45.  What  was  the  ''Methuen  Treaty  f— It  was  a  comm^ercial 
treaty  between  England  and  Portugal,  concluded  by  Paul 
Methuen,  of  Corsham,  the  English  ambassador,  1703.  In 
virtue  of  this  treaty,  the  relations  between  England  and  Por- 
tugal have  been  of  a  friendly  character. 

46.  When  did  the  great  Earthquake  at  Lisbon  take  place  ?—li 
took  place  November  i,  1755,  when  most  of  the  city  was 
destroyed,  and  within  eight  minutes  upwards  of  50,000  inhab- 
itants were  swallowed  up. 

47.  What  extensive  state  in  South  America  has  sprung  from 


The   Bastile  was  a   Prison  in   Paris  ;   Destroyed,    1789. — See  page  407 


The    Occult   Arts    were    Secret    Arts    of  the    Ancients. — See    page    ii8. 


CONCL  UDING  HIS  TORICAL  Q  UESTIONS.  427 

Portugal? — The  empire  of  Brazil,  which  dates  from  about 
1821,  and  has  an  emperor  connected  with  the  royal  family  of 
Portugal. 

48.  What  were  the  Haiise  towns? — They  were  certain  free 
cities  of  Germany  which,  in  the  13th  century,  formed  a  league 
or  union  for  the  purpose  of  common  defence  against  pirates, 
baronial  oppressors,  and  others.  The  term  Hanse  is  from 
Hansa,  which,  in  the  old  Teutonic  dialect,  signifies  an  associ- 
ation for  mutual  defence. 

49.  What  was  the  number  of  Hanse  towns?— kX.  one  time 
there  were  as  many  as  85,  chiefly  on  the  Rhine,  the  Elbe,  and 
shores  of  the  Baltic.  Bremen,  Liibeck,  and  Hamburg  were 
the  principal  citiss  in  the  Hanseatic  union,  which  has  disap- 
peared in  the  progress  of  social  improvement. 

50.  What  was  the  Zollverein? — It  was  a  commercial  union 
of  nearly  all  the  German  states,  according  to  which  customs- 
duties  were  levied  only  on  the  frontiers  of  the  union,  for  the 
common  behoof.  The  Zollverein  (customs  union)  began  in 
1818,  and  was  merged  m  the  German  Empire  in  1871. 

51.  What  was  the  Danish  and  German  War? — It  was  a  war 
waged  by  Prussia,  Austria  and  other  German  powers  against 
Denmark,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  inheritance  to  the  duchies 
of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  1863 — 1864.  The  result  was  fatal 
to  Denmark,  which,  after  suffering  great  losses,  had  to  re- 
linquish these  duchies,  and  the  war  closed  by  a  treaty  of 
peace,  November,  1864. 

52.  What  was  the  Prusso-Austrian  war  of  1 866  ? — It  was  a  war 
which  originated  indifferences  between  Prussia  and  Austria 
regarding  the  occupation  and  disposal  of  the  territory  taken 
from  Denmark,  but  was  really  due  to  the  rivalry  between  the 
two  states  for  the  leadership  of  Germany.  The  war  ended 
in  the  total  defeat  of  Austria,  the  annexation  to  Prussia  of 
the  kingdom  of  Hanover  and  other  German  states  which 
had  supported  Austria,  and  the  formation  of  a  North  German 
Confederation,  consisting  of  the  states  north  of  the  Main. 
During  the  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870-71,  the  South  German 
states  joined  the  Northern  Confederation,  and  the  king  01 
Prussia  was  elected  emperor  of  Germany. 


The    Earth's      Surface      is      200,000,000      Square    Miles. — See    page   23. 


The  Greek  Statue,  Apollo  Belvidere,  was  Discovered  1503. — See  page  181. 


M 

< 

6 


428         CONCLUDING  HISTORICAL  QUESTIONS. 

53.  What  important  nation  has  sprung  from  Great  Britainf 
—The  United  States  of  America,  which  were  for  the  mosx 
part  originally  British  colonies,  and  declared  their  indepen- 
dence, 1776,  which  was  acknowledged  by  George   III.,  1783. 

54.  What  was  the  flag  adopted  by  the  United  States  .?-*-Tt 
was  a  flag  consisting  of  stars  and  stripes.  The  stars  white  on 
a  blue  ground,  and  the  stripes  red  and  white  alternately. 

55.  What  form  of  government  did  the  United  States  adopt .?— ■ 
They  adopted  a  republic,  with  an  elective  president,  whose 
term  of  office  is  four  years. 

56.  Mention  the  names  of  those  who  became  conspicuous  in  se- 
curing independence  to  the  United  States ? — George  Washing- 
ton, Thomas  Jefferson,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Patrick  Henry, 
John  Jay,  John  Adams,  Alexander  Hamilton,  and  Josiah 
Quincy,  also  several  others.  All  were  men  of  cultivated 
minds  and  firm  resolution ;  but  to  Washington's  military 
genius  belongs  the  chief  merit  "in  this  great  and  successful 
struggle. 

57.  What  was  the  position  and  character  of  Washington?— 
He  was  a  Virginian  gentleman  of  good  education,  polished 
manners,  and  of  English  descent.  His  character  is  con- 
sidered to  have  been  one  ot  the  most  estimable  in  history; 
entertaining  no  selfish  views,  he  placidly  retired  into  private 
life  on  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  1783. 

58.  Who  was  the  first  President  of  the  United  States?— 
George  Washington,  who  reluctantly  quitted  private  life, 
and  accepted  office,  1789.  He  served  a  second  time  as  presi- 
dent, and  to  the  grief  of  the  nation,  died  December  14,  1799. 

59.  Who  was  the  first  ambassador  to  France  from  the  United 
5/a/^j?— Benjamin  Franklin,  who  was  ambassador  to  the 
court  of  Louis  XVI.  from  1776  to  1785,  and  was  concerned 
m  promoting  a  treaty  of  alliance  between  the  United  States 
and  France. 

60  Mention  some  circumstances  in  the  career  of  Franklin.— 
He  was  born  at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  1706:  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  as  a  printer  at  Philadelphia;  and  rose 
to  distinction  by  his  prudence  and  diligence,  also  by  hi« 
scientific  discoveries. 


Initials  S.  P.  Q.  R.  Signify  the  Roman  Senate  and  People.— See  page  276. 


\   (UNIVERSITY 


Printing   was    Invented    in    1437,   by   John    Guttenberg.— See    page   305. 


(» 


CONCLUDING  HISTORICAL  QUESTIONS. 


429 


61.  What  was  Franklin  s  great  electrical  discovery? — By 
means  of  a  paper  kite  he  brought  down  Hghtning  from  the 
douds,  and  identified  it  with  electric  manifestations ;  this 
discovery  led  to  the  protection  of  tall  buildings  from  light- 
ning by  means  of  iron  rods  as  conductors. 

62.  When  did  Franklin  die? — He  died  April  17,  1790;  his 
autobiography  is  prized  as  an  interesting  account  of  a  man 
who  rose  from  poverty  and  obscurity  to  fortune  and  fame, 
by  diligence  in  his  calling  and  other  good  qualities.  Frank- 
hn  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  the  i8th  century. 

63.  What  was  the  last  part  of  the  North  Afnerican  continent 
relinquished  by  France .?— Louisiana,  which  was  sold  by  Napo- 
leon I.  to  the  United  States,  1812  ;  many  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Louisiana  being  of  French  descent,  they  continue  to  speak 
the  French  language. 

64.  What  is  meant  by  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine  ?" — It  signifies  a 
policy  inculcated  by  James  Monroe,  president  from  1816  to 
1824,  to  the  effect  that  the  United  States  should  neither  in- 
terfere in  European  affairs,  nor  allow  any  further  extension  of 
European  powers  in  North  America. 

65/  What  were  the  ''Confederate  States?" — They  were  certain 
southern  states  which  seceded  from  the  Union,  formed  a 
separate  confederation,  and  on  a  claim  of  independence 
broke  into  rebellion,  1861. 

66.  What  was  the  issue  of  the  Confederate  rebellion? — After 
four  years  of  a  bloody  and  costly  civil  war,  the  rebellion  was 
suppressed,  1865. 

6^.  Who  was  Abraham  Lincoln  ? — He  was  president  of  the 
United  States  during  the  whole  period  of  the  Confederate 
rebellion,  and  much  esteemed  for  his  simple  and  honest 
character,  as  well  as  for  his  administrative  capacity  at  a  time 
of  great  national  trouble. 

68.  What  was  the  fate  of  President  Lincoln  ? — He  was,  to 
the  horror  and  indignation  of  the  whole  civilized  world, 
assassinated  by  the  pistol-shot  of  a  political  fanatic,  April,  14, 
1865. 

69.  Mention  some  parallel  cases  of  assassination  which  an 
recorded  in  history, — The  assassination   of  Julius  Caesar,  44 


Sound    Travels   at  the    Rate   of  1,125   Feet  per   Second. — See  page  49. 


Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Born  in  Corsica,  1769;    Died,  1821  — See  page  411. 


430  CONCLUDING  HISTORICAL  QUESTIONS. 

B.  C;  James   I.    of    Scotland,    1437;    William    I.,   Prince   of 
Orange,  1584;  and  Henry  IV.  of  France.  1610. 

70.  IVkat  was  the  effect  on  Germany  of  the  war  with  France 
in  1870-71  ? — Besides  re-uniting  Alsace  and  Lorraine  to  Ger- 
many, and  securing  the  enormous  sum  of  ;^2oo,ooo,ooa  as 
war  indemnity,  the  German  peoples,  hitherto  much  divided 
in  sympathy,  were  drawn  closer  together;  so  that  at  the  end 
of  the  war,  the  twenty-five  sovereign  states  of  Germany 
united  under  a  restored  empire,  King  William  of  Prussia 
being  chosen  as  Emperor. 

71.  When  did  the  former  German  Empire  cease  to  exist  as 
such? — When  the  power  of  Napoleon  I.  was  predominant  on 
the  continent,  and  when  in  1806  the  head  of  the  house  of 
Hapsburg  took  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria. 

72.  Is  Austria  now  accounted  part  of  Germa7ty? — No.  Al- 
though the  most  important  part  of  its  population  is  German, 
Austria  has  not  been  regarded  as  a  German  state  since  the 
Austro-Prussian  war  of  1866,  and  has  no  kind  of  connection 
with  the  new  German  Empire. 

73.  Who  is  Bisi7iarck? — Count  Bismarck,  born  in  1813,  be- 
came early  in  life  a  notable  Prussian  statesman,  and  was  for 
many  years  the  guiding  spirit  of  Prussian  policy.  After  the 
great  war  of  1870  he  was  made  a  prince  of  the  Empire  he  had 
helped  to  create,  and  became  the  most  prominent,  perhaps 
the  most  powerful,  man  in  Europe. 

74.  What  has  been  the  course  of  recent  events  in  Spain  ? — In 
1868,  Queen  Isabella  was  driven  from  the  throne  by  a  gen- 
eral revolt,  and  in  1870,  Amadeo,  son  of  the  king  of  Italy, 
was  chosen  king.  Finding  the  task  of  governing  constitu- 
tionally hopeless,  Amadeo  resigned  in  1873.  For  two  years 
Spain  was  the  scene  of  bloodshed  and  anarchy ;  but  at  the 
end  of  1874  order  was  restored,  and  Alfonso,  son  of  the  ex- 
quecn  Isabella,  was  declared  king. 

75.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  war  between  Russia  and  Tur- 
key in  1877-78? — the  misgovernment  of  the  Christian  prov- 
inces of  Turkey,  leading  to  insurrection  of  the  Slavonic 
subjects  of  the  Sultan.  As  their  champion,  Russia  declared 
Hrar  against  Turkey. 


Order  of  the  Garter"  was  a  Knighthood,  Instituted  1344. — See  page  122. 


The   Atmosphere   Reaches   to  the    Height    of   45   Miles. — See   page  47. 


CONCL  UDING  HISTORICAL  Q UESTIONS.  43 1 

'j6.  What  was  the  issue  of  the  w<3:r  f— The  Turks,  entirely 
defeated  by  the  Russians,  had  to  accept  peace  on  unfavor- 
able terms  from  the  latter. 

^T.  What  was  the  Congress  of  Berlin  ? — An  assembly  of  rep- 
resentatives of  the  European  powers  at  Berlin  in  1878  in  or- 
der to  revise  the  treaty  made  by  Russia  and  Turkey,  and  to 
settle  permanently  the  political  relations  of  Turkey. 

78.  What  wet  e  the  principal  political  changes  sanctioned  by 
the  Berlin  Congress? — Roumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro 
were  recognized  as  independent  states,  and  the  latter  two  re- 
ceived additional  territory.  Bulgaria  was  made  into  an  au- 
tonomous principality,  and  the  province  of  Eastern  Roumelia, 
also  mainly  Bulgarian  in  population,  received  administrative 
autonomy.  Roumanian  Bessarabia  was  given  to  Russia  ;  it 
was  arranged  that  Austria  should  occupy  and  administer 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  and  it  was  recommended  that  por- 
tions of  Thessaly  and  Epirus  should  be  transferred  to  Greece  ; 
and  Turkey,  besides  pledging  itself  to  introduce  numerous 
reforms,  ceded  to  Russia  a  portion  of  its  territories  in  Ar- 
menia. 

79.  Of  what  7tature  was  the  "  Conditional  Convention"  con- 
cluded between  England  and  Turkey  in  1878? — The  English 
Government  engaged  to  defend,  especially  against  Russia, 
the  Asiatic  territories  of  the  Sultan  ;  and  in  return,  secured 
the  right  to  occupy  and  administer  the  island  of  Cyprus  so 
long  as  Russia  retains  the  recently  ceded  parts  of  Armenia. 


^  Of  THE 

VHIVERSITY 


The  First  English  Encyclopaedia  was  Published  in  1728. — See  page  154. 


The    Amazons    were   a    Nation   of    Female    ^A^a^^io^s.  — See    page    243. 


£ 


514  CARLETON'S    ENCYCLOPEDIA, 

Carleton's  Condensed  Encyclopedia  contains  over 
Six  Thousand  References  to  the  most  Important  Matters  of 
Interest  in  the  World. 

Including  the  66  pages  of  Index  (which  is  by  far  the  most 
valuable  Reference  Index  ever  compiled),  the  volume 
contains  514  pages. 

Instead  of  being  alphabetically  arranged,  as  most  Encyclo- 
paedias are,  the  Information  is  Arranged  in  Subjects, 
embracing  everything  in  the  most  abbreviated  form  possible, 
which  renders  the  subject  Comprehensible,  thoroughly 
understood,  and  easii>y  memorized. 

It  is  impossible  for  any  intelligent  person  to  open  the 
book,  on  any  page,  without  becoming  interested.  From 
beginning  to  end  it  is  one  Condensed  Mass  of  Know- 
ledge, useful,  instructive,  and  entertaining. 

The  following  table  of  Contents  exhibits  the  number  of 
paragraphs  contained  upon  each  subject: 
There  are  238  Paragraphs  in  Astronomy  and  Geography. 
Geology  and  Minerology. 
Chemistry,  Heat,  and  Atmosphere. 
Light,  Electricity,  and  Magnetism. 
Matter  and  Motion. 
Vegetable  and  Animal  Creation. 
Ethnology  and  Chronology. 
Language,  Literature,  etc. 
Greek  and  Roman  Philosophy. 
Medieval  Learning  and  Arts. 
Literature,  France,  Germany,  Spain,  Italy. 
English  Literature  and  the  Fine  Arts. 
British  Constitution  and  Jurisprudence. 
Historical  Explanations. 
Ancient  and   Hebrew  History. 
History  of  Babylonians,  and  Assyrians. 
Greece  and  Mythology. 
Ancient  Greege,  Credible  History. 

"       Roman  History, 
Medieval  History. 
British  and  French  History. 
Covering  almost  the  entire  field  of  Learning,  and  render- 
ing it  the  most  useful  single  Volume  ever  published. 

G.  W.  CARLETON  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

Madison  Square,  New  York. 


(( 

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851 

Crcjesus,   a   King   in   Asia,  renowned   for   Great  Wealth. — See   page   234. 


Humboldt,  the    Naturalist   and   Geographer,   Died    1859. — See   page    133. 


iZZo.^CENSUS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Alabama 1,262,344 

Arizona 40,441 

Arkansas 802,5  4 

California 864,683 

Colorado 194,469 

Connecticut 622,683 

Dakota 134,502 

Delaware 146,654 

District  of  Columbia 1771638 

Florida 266,566 

Georgia 15538,983 

Idaho 32,611 

Illinois 3,078, 636 

Indiana 1,978,3  38 

Iowa 1,624,463 

Kansas 995,335 

Kentucky 1,648,599 

Louisiana 940,263 

Maine 648,945 

Maryland 935.139 

Massachusetts 1,783,086 

Michigan   1,634,096 

Minnesota 780,807 

Mississippi 1,131,899 

Total 


Missouri 2,169,091 

Montana 39, 157 

Nebraska 452,832 

Nevada 62,265 

New  Hampshire 347.784 

New  Jersey 1,130.892 

New  Mexico 118,430 

New  York 5»c>83,i73 

North  Carolina 1,400,000 

Ohio 3, 197,794 

Oregon 1 74,767 

Pennsylvania 4,282,738 

Rhode  Island 276,528 

South  Carolina 995,706 

Tennessee 1,542,463 

Texas i,597,509 

Utah 143,907 

Vermont ...  332.286 

Virginia 1,512,203 

Washington 75,120 

West  Virginia 618, 193 

Wisconsin , 1,315,386 

Wyoming 20, 788 


50,152.559 


Population  of  cities  and  towns  having  thirty  thousand  inhabitants  and 
upwards : 


New  York,  N.  Y 1,206,590 

Brooklyn.  N.  Y 566,689 

Boston,  Mass 362,535 

Baltimore,  M.  D 332,190 

San  Francisco,  Cal 233,956 

Cleveland,   O 160,142 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 155,137 

Newark,  N.J 136,4^0 

Philadelphia,  Pa 846,984 

Chicago,  III .  503, 304 

St.  Louis,  Mo 350,522 

Cincinnati,  O 255,708 

New  Orleans,  La 216,140 

Pittsburg,  Pa 156,381 

Washin2;ton,  D.  C 147,307 

Louisville,  Ky 123,645 

Detroit,  Mich 116,342 

Providence,  R.  1 104,850 

Rochester,  N.  Y 89,363 

Indianapolis,  Ind 75,o74 

New  Haven,  Conn 62,88!s 

Worcester,  Mass 58,295 

Kansas  City,  Mo 55.813 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 51,791 

Paterson,  N.  J 50,887 

Charleston,  S.  C  49-999 

Minneapolis,  Minn 46.887 

Nashville,  Tenn 4^,461 

Hartiord,  Conn 42,553 

Camden,  N.J 41,658 

Lawrence,  Mass 39, 178 

Lynn,  Mass 38,284 


Oakland,  Cal 34,556 

Utica.  N.  Y 33.913 

Memphis,  Tenn 33.593 

Manchester,  N.  H 32,630 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 32,015 

Mobile,  Ala 31,205 

Harrisburg,  Pa 30,702 

Omaha,  Neb  30,518 

Jersey  City,  N.  J 120,728 

Milwaukee,  Wis 115,578 

Albany,  N.  Y 90.903 

Allegheny,  Pa 78,681 

Richmond,  Va 63,803 

Lowell,  Mass 59.485 

Troy,  N.Y 56,747 

Cambridge,  Mass 52,740 

Columbus,  Ohio 51,665 

Toledo,  Ohio :.  50,143 

Fall  River,  Mass 49.006 

Scranton,  Pa 45,850 

Reading,  Pa  43,280 

Wilmington,  Del 42,499 

St.  Paul,  Minn 41,498 

Dayton,  Ohio 38,677 

Denver,  Col ^ 53,630 

Atlanta,  Ga 34,398 

Portland,  Me 33,8io 

Soringfield,  Mass. 33,34° 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 32,484 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 31.266 

Hoboken,  N.  J 30.999 

Savannah,  Ga  30,681 


Planets  Shine  with  a  Steady  Lustre,  but    Stars  Twinkle. — See  page  13, 


'^A    WONDEBFUL    WOJRKJ^ 

WOMAN'S  LOvTaND  LIFE. 

A  BOOK   FOR  WOMEN  AND    FOR  MEN. 

Giving,  in  the  most  delicate  and  chaste  manner,  the  story, 
COMPLETE,  OF  WOMAN'S  LOVE  AND  LIFE. 

From  the  French  of 

M.    JULES    MICHELET. 

Translated  from  the  Fifty-first  Paris  Edition^ 

By  J.  W.  PALMER,  M.D. 


"  Fall  of  good  feeling  and  substantial  purity ;  and  yet,  as  M.  Michelet  says,  it  la 
advisable  that  the  young  man  who  is  to  read  it  should  take  it  home,  and  read  it  quietly 
by  himself.  No  one  can  mistake  the  spirit  of  poetry  and  purity  that  breathes  througli 
the  volume." — London  Saturday  Review. 

"To  young  lovers,  or  rather  young  husbands,  we  especially  recommend  it." — 
Newark.  Daily  Advertiser. 

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of  a  lofty  and  tender  morality.  In  Paris  it  sells  like  bread,  and  is  in  the  hands  ot 
everybody."— iVezo  York  Home  Journal. 

"  We  have  rarely  known  such  great  anxiety  evidenced  by  the  public  to  see  a  forth 
coming  volume  as  has  been  manifested  for  a  perusal  of  tM'&:''— Baltimore  American. 

"  Its  subjects  must  make  it  attractive  to  all  woman-kind."— Ciwciwnafi  Enquirer 

"  Those  who  read  it  will  find  in  it  a  treasury  of  thoughts,  elevated  and  profound.** 
-JV«M>  York  Times. 

*'  Twenty  to  thirty  thousand  copies  have  been  sold  in  a  few  weeks." — New  Yorr 
Observer. 

"Michelet's  book  was  translated.,  stereotyped,  printtd.,  bound,  and  nearly  twenty 
thousand,  copies  of  it  sold,  in  a  little  more  than  two  weeks.  The  success  it  meets 
certainly  warrants  this  rapid  work— nothing  like  the  feat  ever  has  been  performed  in 
the  history  of  bookmaking."— ^«ifl  York  Evening  Post. 

Thia  wonderful  book  has  already  met  an  unprecedented  sale,  and  stands  pre- 
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WOMAN  should  possess  and  read. 

Published  in  one  octavo  volume,  exquisitely  illustrated  and  elegantly  bound. 

SOLD    ONLY    BY    SUBSCRIPTION. 

AGENTS  WANTED  EVERYWHERE.  Liberal  commissions  and  special  Terri- 
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For  full  particulars,  descriptive  circulars,  and  confidential  terms,  address  the 
Pablifihers, 


'■HrS  BOOK  IS  i„;eTn 

Book.  .„.    «rAMl>ED  BEL^^«^  ^ATE 


--'Wv^j  ism 

^4Jan'50J)S 


DEC    61980 


«BC.  C/ft. 


K 


vn     I ! ^^L 


